Introduction to The Art of War

Sun Wu and His Book

Here’s the story of Sun Tzu, as told by the ancient historian Ssu-ma Ch’ien:

Sun Tzu Meets the King

Sun Tzu Wu came from a place called the Ch’i State. King Ho Lu of the Wu State heard about Sun Tzu because of his book, “The Art of War.”

King Ho Lu told Sun Tzu, “I’ve read your 13 chapters carefully. Can I test your ideas about leading soldiers?”

Sun Tzu agreed.

The King then asked, “Can we use women for this test?”

Sun Tzu said yes again. So, they brought 180 women from the King’s palace.

The Training Exercise

Sun Tzu split the women into two groups. He put one of the King’s favorite palace women in charge of each group. He gave them all spears and asked, “Do you understand the difference between front and back, and right hand and left hand?”

The women said, “Yes.”

Sun Tzu explained the commands:

“When I say ‘Eyes front,’ look straight ahead.”
“When I say ‘Left turn,’ face your left hand.”
“When I say ‘Right turn,’ face your right hand.”
“When I say ‘About turn,’ turn completely around to face the back.”

The women agreed they understood.

Sun Tzu set up weapons (halberds and battle-axes) to mark the training area. Then, using drums for signals, he ordered, “Right turn.”

But the women just laughed.

Sun Tzu’s Response

Sun Tzu said, “If commands aren’t clear, and orders aren’t understood well, the general is responsible.”

So, he explained the commands again and started the drill over. This time he ordered, “Left turn.”

Again, the women just laughed loudly.

Sun Tzu then said: “If commands aren’t clear and orders aren’t understood, the general is responsible. But, if the orders are clear, and the soldiers still don’t obey, then it’s the officers’ fault.”

With that, he ordered the two women leading the groups to be executed.

The King Intervenes

King Ho Lu was watching from a platform above. When he saw his favorite women were about to be killed, he got very worried. He quickly sent a message: “I’m now convinced the general knows how to command troops. If I lose these two women, my food and drink won’t taste good anymore. Please don’t execute them.”

Sun Tzu replied: “I have already received your orders to be the general. As the general, there are some commands from the King that I cannot follow.”

So, he had the two leaders executed. He immediately put the next two women in line in charge of the groups.

The Result

After this, the drums sounded for the drill again. This time, the women followed every command perfectly. They turned right, turned left, marched forward, turned back, kneeled, and stood exactly as ordered. They did it all without making a sound.

Then, Sun Tzu sent a message to the King: “Your soldiers are now well-trained and disciplined. They are ready for you to inspect. They will do whatever you ask, even go through fire and water, without disobeying.”

But the King answered: “Let the general stop the drill and go back to camp. I don’t want to come down and inspect the troops.”

Sun Tzu then commented: “The King only likes the idea of discipline; he can’t actually put it into practice.”

Sun Tzu Becomes General

After this event, King Ho Lu realized Sun Tzu truly knew how to lead an army. He officially appointed him as a general.

Successes: Sun Tzu achieved great military victories.
- In the west, he defeated the powerful Ch’u State and even entered their capital city, Ying.
- In the north, his actions made the states of Ch’i and Chin fearful.
Fame: His reputation spread among the regional leaders (feudal princes). Sun Tzu contributed significantly to the King’s power.

That’s all the historian Ssu-ma Ch’ien tells us about Sun Tzu himself in this specific section.

Sun Tzu’s Descendant: Sun Pin

Ssu-ma Ch’ien also writes about Sun Tzu’s descendant, Sun Pin. Sun Pin was born about 100 years after Sun Tzu died and was also a brilliant military leader in his time.

The historian sometimes refers to Sun Pin as “Sun Tzu” as well. In the preface to his history, Ssu-ma Ch’ien wrote: “Sun Tzu had his feet cut off but still discussed the art of war.” This suggests “Pin” might have been a nickname given after this injury (mutilation means having a body part removed). Or, perhaps the story of the injury was made up to explain the name “Pin.”

Sun Pin’s most famous victory was defeating his treacherous rival, P’ang Chuan.

More Records of the Elder Sun Tzu

The elder Sun Tzu (Sun Wu) is mentioned in two other places in Ssu-ma Ch’ien’s history, the Shih Chi:

512 B.C.: In the third year of his rule, King Ho Lu of Wu went to battle against the Ch’u state with his advisors Tzu-hsu and Po P’ei. They captured a town called Shu and killed two princes who used to be generals for Wu. The King wanted to attack the Ch’u capital, Ying. But General Sun Wu advised: “The army is tired. It’s not the right time. We must wait.”
506 B.C.: Later, in the ninth year of his rule, King Ho Lu asked Wu Tzu-hsu and Sun Wu: “You previously said we couldn’t enter Ying yet. Is the time right now?” They replied: “Ch’u’s general, Tzu-ch’ang, is greedy, and the leaders of the T’ang and Ts’ai states dislike him. If you want to launch a major attack, you need to get T’ang and Ts’ai on your side first. Then you might succeed.” King Ho Lu took their advice, won five major battles against Ch’u, and marched into their capital, Ying.

This event in 506 B.C. is the last recorded action of Sun Wu. He likely died before King Ho Lu, who died in 496 B.C. from a battle wound.

Another historical text mentions:

“From this time on, many famous soldiers appeared one after another: Kao-fan, who worked for the Chin State; Wang-tzu, who served the Ch’i State; and Sun Wu, who served the Wu State. These men developed and clarified the principles of warfare.”

Historical Doubts About Sun Tzu

Ssu-ma Ch’ien clearly believed Sun Wu was a real historical person. He is the most important source for this period, with one exception mentioned later.

Other sources, like the Wu Yueh Ch’un Ch’iu (supposedly written in the 1st century A.D., but maybe not), offer little reliable information. This book mostly retells Ssu-ma Ch’ien’s account with added dramatic details. It does add a few points, possibly inaccurate:

Sun Tzu was first recommended to King Ho Lu by Wu Tzu-hsu.
It calls Sun Tzu a native of the Wu state (contradicting Ssu-ma Ch’ien).
It claims Sun Tzu lived quietly before meeting the king, and people didn’t know about his skills.

Early References to Sun Tzu

Huai-nan Tzu (died 122 B.C.): This work contains the earliest definite reference to Sun Tzu, written before Ssu-ma Ch’ien’s Shih Chi. It says: “When the ruler and ministers have confused minds, even a Sun Tzu cannot face the enemy.” This shows Sun Tzu was already known by that name then.
Liu Hsiang (80-9 B.C.): He wrote: “Sun Tzu, leading 30,000 men, beat Ch’u’s 200,000 because Ch’u’s army was undisciplined.”
Teng Ming-shih (later writer): He provided more details about Sun Tzu’s family, claiming his grandfather received the surname “Sun” from Duke Ching of Ch’i (ruled 547-490 B.C.). He named Sun Wu’s father (Sun P’ing) and Sun Wu’s “style name” (Ch’ang-ch’ing). He also claimed Sun Wu fled Ch’i due to a rebellion and had three sons, including Ming, the father of Sun Pin. This would make Sun Pin the grandson of Sun Wu. However, this timeline doesn’t work because Sun Pin’s famous victory was in 341 B.C. These details from Teng Ming-shih are considered unreliable.

Ts’ao Ts’ao’s Preface

A significant document from the end of the Han Dynasty (around 200 A.D.) is a short preface written by the famous leader Ts’ao Ts’ao for his edition of Sun Tzu’s work. Here’s a summary of Ts’ao Ts’ao’s preface:

He mentions ancient texts referring to armies and warfare (Shu Chu, I Ching, Shih Ching).
He notes that legendary rulers (Yellow Emperor, T’ang, Wu Wang) used weapons to help their people.
He quotes the Ssu-ma Fa (another military text) about justice in killing.
He warns against relying only on war (like King Fu Ch’ai of Wu) or only on peace (like King Yen of Hsu).
He states that wise rulers prefer peace but use force when necessary.
He declares that among the many books on war he has read, Sun Wu’s is the deepest and most profound.
(Ts’ao Ts’ao briefly repeats the story of Sun Tzu coming from Ch’i, writing 13 chapters for King Ho Lu, testing them on women, becoming a general, defeating Ch’u, intimidating Ch’i and Chin, and Sun Pin being his descendant living over 100 years later.)
He praises Sun Tzu’s thinking on planning, speed, clarity, and depth, saying it’s beyond criticism.
He notes that people of his time often missed the main points of Sun Tzu’s work while focusing on minor details.
He states his reason for writing his commentary was to provide a basic explanation of the whole work.

Key Point from Ts’ao Ts’ao: He explicitly says Sun Tzu wrote the 13 chapters specifically for King Ho Lu. This matches hints within the text itself, where it seems Sun Tzu is addressing a ruler.

The Mystery of the 82 Chapters

The Han Shu, a history of the Han Dynasty, lists an entry that causes confusion: “The works of Sun Tzu of Wu in 82 sections (p’ien), with 9 scrolls (chuan) of diagrams.”

This is clearly more than the 13 chapters we know today. What were the extra sections?

Theory 1: Added Writings: Chang Shou-chieh (a later commentator) mentioned an edition where the “13 chapters” were just the first part, followed by two more parts. This led to the idea that the other 69 chapters (82 total minus 13) might have been other writings by Sun Tzu, possibly written later. These could include question-and-answer sessions between Sun Tzu and King Ho Lu explaining his ideas.
- Some fragments of such question-and-answer texts still exist. If the whole book was explained this way, it could easily reach 82 chapters.
- Other texts attributed to Sun Tzu might also have been included in this larger collection.
- Supporter Pi I-hsun argues that since the Han Shu only lists this 82-chapter work, while later book lists (Sui and T’ang dynasties) mention the “13 chapters” plus other Sun Tzu titles, those other titles must have originally been part of the 82 chapters.
Likely Solution: This theory suggests that many writings, perhaps some fake ones (forgeries), might have been created and attributed to Sun Tzu after his time. The 82-chapter collection could have been the original 13 chapters bundled together with these later, possibly less authentic, works. It’s also possible some of these existed when Ssu-ma Ch’ien wrote his history, but he ignored them.
Theory 2 (Less Accepted): Ts’ao Ts’ao Compiled It? Tu Mu (another commentator) suggested that Ts’ao Ts’ao created the 82 chapters by “stringing together” Sun Wu’s work. This might come from misunderstanding Ts’ao Ts’ao’s preface, where he humbly said he wrote an “explanatory paraphrase” (a commentary). Most scholars reject this idea. The Ssu K’u Ch’uan Shu (a large book catalogue) states that since the Shih Chi mentions 13 chapters existing before the Han Shu was compiled, later additions shouldn’t be seen as original. Tu Mu’s idea isn’t considered proof.

Conclusion: It’s highly likely that the 13 chapters we have today existed in Ssu-ma Ch’ien’s time (around 100 B.C.) much as they are now. Ssu-ma Ch’ien himself said Sun Tzu’s 13 chapters and Wu Ch’i’s Art of War were the most common military books, widely available, so he wouldn’t discuss them in detail.

Deeper Historical Doubts

However, going further back in time reveals serious problems.

The Missing Mention: The Tso Chuan, the most important historical record written during the time Sun Tzu supposedly lived, never mentions Sun Wu at all. It doesn’t mention him as a general or a writer.
The Skeptics: Because of this silence in the contemporary record, many scholars doubt Ssu-ma Ch’ien’s story about Sun Wu. Some even doubt if Sun Wu ever existed.

Yeh Shui-hsin (a scholar) strongly argued against Sun Wu’s existence:

Ssu-ma Ch’ien says Sun Wu was from Ch’i, worked for Wu, defeated Ch’u, entered Ying, and was a great general. But the Tso Chuan doesn’t mention him.
The Tso Chuan does mention less important people from that era, even commoners and hired fighters. Why would it completely ignore someone as famous and successful as Sun Wu?
The Tso Chuan gives details about Sun Wu’s supposed colleagues, Wu Yuan and Minister P’ei. It seems unbelievable that only Sun Wu would be left out.
The writing style of The Art of War is similar to other philosophical and strategic texts (Guanzi, Liu Tao, Yueh Yu) from the late Spring and Autumn period or early Warring States period (roughly 771-256 B.C.). Yeh Shui-hsin suggests the book might have been written by a scholar during that later time.
He thinks the story that the Wu state actually used Sun Tzu’s methods is just “big talk” spread by the author’s followers.
During the earlier Chou dynasty and Spring and Autumn periods, military leaders were usually also government officials. The idea of a “professional general” who only led armies wasn’t common until the later Warring States period.
Even though Wu was considered less civilized, would the Tso Chuan really fail to record a great general like Sun Wu if he held no government position?
Yeh Shui-hsin concludes that the stories about Sun Wu (and another general, Jang-chu) are likely made-up tales by later theorists, not real history. He finds the story of testing the commands on women particularly unbelievable.

Clarification: Yeh Shui-hsin implied Ssu-ma Ch’ien said Sun Wu personally defeated Ch’u and entered Ying. Ssu-ma Ch’ien doesn’t state this directly, though he gives that impression. It’s never explicitly said Sun Tzu was the general in charge when Ying was captured, or even that he was there. Since other figures (Wu Yuan, Po P’ei, Fu Kai) were known to be involved in that campaign, it’s hard to see where another main general would fit in.

Ch’en Chen-sun (a scholar from the Sung dynasty, 960-1279 A.D.) noted:

“Military writers see Sun Wu as the founder of their art. But because he doesn’t appear in the Tso Chuan, even though he supposedly served King Ho Lu of Wu, it’s unclear when he actually lived.”

He also wrote:

“The books of Sun Wu and Wu Ch’i might be genuinely old.”

Important Distinction: Both Yeh Shui-hsin and Ch’en Chen-sun doubted the historical person Sun Wu as described by Ssu-ma Ch’ien, but they seemed willing to accept that the book, The Art of War, could indeed be ancient, dating from the traditional time period.

The author of the Hsu Lu (another text) criticized Ch’en Chen-sun but missed this point. However, the Hsu Lu author did make a strong argument for the book’s age:

“Sun Tzu must have lived around the time of King Ching (519-476 B.C.) because his work is copied or referenced frequently in later writings from the Chou, Ch’in, and Han dynasties.”

More Evidence for the Book’s Age

Two writers who often copied from The Art of War without giving credit were Wu Ch’i and Huai-nan Tzu. Both were important historical figures.

Wu Ch’i: Lived just a century after Sun Tzu supposedly lived. He died in 381 B.C. Some sources say he received the famous historical text, the Tso Chuan, from Tseng Shen, who got it from the original author.
Huai-nan Tzu: As mentioned before, died in 122 B.C.

The fact that many authors from different times quote The Art of War (sometimes crediting Sun Tzu, sometimes not) strongly suggests the book existed before all of them. This points to The Art of War being around near the end of the 5th century B.C. (the 400s B.C.).

More Clues:

Old Language: The book uses several words that had old meanings or were no longer used later. A list of these words exists, and while some interpretations are debated, the overall point remains: the language seems old.
Expert Opinion on Style: Yeh Shui-hsin, the same scholar who doubted Sun Tzu existed, was a top critic. He stated that the writing style of the 13 chapters fits the early 5th century B.C. Since he was trying to disprove Sun Tzu’s existence, he wouldn’t have placed the book earlier unless he genuinely believed it based on the writing. The judgment of a skilled Chinese scholar on writing style is very significant.
Outdated Systems:
- Chapter XIII mentions an old system of owning land. This system was gone by the time of the philosopher Mencius (around 372-289 B.C.), who wanted to bring back a version of it.
- The only type of warfare Sun Tzu describes involves feudal lords fighting each other, using many chariots with armor. Chariots stopped being used this way before the end of the Chou dynasty (around 256 B.C.).
Wu State Perspective: Sun Tzu writes like someone from the state of Wu. Wu ceased to exist in 473 B.C.

If the book dates back to the 5th century B.C. or earlier, it’s much less likely to be a fake. Major forgery became common much later. It’s especially unlikely someone would forge a book and link it to the recently defeated state of Wu right after 473 B.C.

Was the Author Just a Scholar?

Yeh Shui-hsin suggested the author was a scholar who lived in isolation. This seems wrong. Reading Sun Tzu’s advice makes one thing clear: it comes from real-life observation and experience.

The book shows the mind of a natural military strategist with a great ability to see patterns.
It also shows the mind of a practical soldier who knew the military situation of his time very well.
China’s greatest generals throughout history have agreed with and used his advice.
The writing feels fresh, sincere, smart, and practical. It doesn’t seem like something made up in a study.

Doubting Ssu-ma Ch’ien’s Story

So, if we accept that the 13 chapters are a genuine work by a military expert from the late “Spring and Autumn” period (around the 5th century B.C.), should we accept Ssu-ma Ch’ien’s entire story about Sun Tzu, despite the Tso Chuan not mentioning him?

Ssu-ma Ch’ien was known as a careful historian. Should we hesitate to think the records he used about Sun Wu were wrong?

Unfortunately, the answer seems to be no, we can’t fully trust Ssu-ma Ch’ien’s account. There’s a major problem with the timeline in his story that hasn’t been widely noticed before.

The Wu vs. Yueh Problem

Sun Tzu mentions current events in two places:

In Chapter VI: “Even though I estimate the soldiers of Yueh have more men than we do, that won’t help them win. I say victory can be achieved.”
In Chapter XI: “If asked if an army can be made to act as one, like the shuai-jan snake [that coordinates head and tail], I would say yes. The men of Wu and the men of Yueh are enemies. But if they were crossing a river in the same boat during a storm, they would help each other like a left hand helps a right hand.”

These comments are very important clues about when the book was written. They clearly place it during the time when Wu and Yueh were fighting each other. Scholar Pi I-hsun noted this.

But here’s the problem: This timing contradicts Ssu-ma Ch’ien’s story.

Ssu-ma Ch’ien’s first date for Sun Wu is 512 B.C. At this point, Sun Wu is already a general advising King Ho Lu. This means he met the king earlier, and the 13 chapters must have been written even before 512 B.C.
However, back then (and until the capture of Ying in 506 B.C.), Wu’s main, long-standing enemy was the state of Ch’u, not Yueh. Wu and Ch’u had been fighting for over 50 years.
The first war between Wu and Yueh only happened in 510 B.C., and it was just a brief conflict during the larger struggle against Ch’u.
Crucially, Sun Tzu’s 13 chapters never mention Ch’u at all.

The logical conclusion is that the book was written after Yueh had become Wu’s main enemy. This would be after Ch’u was defeated and humiliated in 506 B.C.

Timeline of the Wu-Yueh Conflict

Here’s a simplified timeline:

514 B.C.: Ho Lu becomes King of Wu.
512 B.C.: Ho Lu attacks Ch’u. Shih Chi mentions Sun Wu as general.
511 B.C.: Wu attacks Ch’u again.
510 B.C.: Wu attacks Yueh (first Wu-Yueh war).
509/508 B.C.: Ch’u attacks Wu but is badly defeated.
506 B.C.: Ho Lu attacks and defeats Ch’u, capturing their capital, Ying. Last mention of Sun Wu in Shih Chi.
505 B.C.: Yueh raids Wu while its army is away. Wu leaves Ying.
497 B.C.: Kou Chien becomes King of Yueh.
496 B.C.: Wu attacks Yueh but is defeated. King Ho Lu is killed.
494 B.C.: Wu, under the new king Fu Ch’ai, defeats Yueh and enters its capital.
485/484 B.C.: Yueh submits to Wu. Key advisor Wu Tzu-hsu dies.
482 B.C.: Yueh invades Wu while its king is away.
478-476 B.C.: More attacks by Yueh on Wu.
475 B.C.: Yueh besieges the Wu capital.
473 B.C.: Wu is finally defeated and destroyed by Yueh.

When Was the Book Written?

The quote from Chapter VI (“Even though I estimate the soldiers of Yueh have more men…”) doesn’t sound like it was written during a time of great victory for Wu. It sounds like Wu might be struggling against Yueh at that moment.

Therefore, the book probably wasn’t written before 505 B.C., because Yueh hadn’t had major successes against Wu before then.
King Ho Lu died in 496 B.C. If the book was written for him, it must have been between 505-496 B.C. This was a quieter period, perhaps when Wu was recovering from its effort against Ch’u.
Alternatively: If we ignore the tradition linking Sun Wu to King Ho Lu, the book might have been written later:
- Between 496-494 B.C. (after Ho Lu’s death, before Yueh’s capital fell).
- Or even during 482-473 B.C., when Yueh was again becoming a major threat leading to Wu’s destruction.

It seems likely the author wasn’t a very famous person in his own time. The silence of the Tso Chuan is stronger evidence against his fame than Ssu-ma Ch’ien’s potentially flawed account.

(Sun Hsing-yen tried to explain why the Tso Chuan doesn’t mention Sun Wu, suggesting Wu Tzu-hsu got all the credit because Sun Wu was a foreigner and didn’t get an official position. This is a weak argument.)

How Did the Sun Tzu Legend Start?

If Sun Wu wasn’t a top general, how did he become so legendary?

Maybe the book itself became famous over time, and people started building up the reputation of its author.
People might have felt that someone who understood war so well must have had great achievements.
The capture of Ying (Ch’u’s capital) was Wu’s greatest military success under King Ho Lu. It impressed neighboring states and marked Wu’s peak power.
Over time, people might have started associating Sun Wu, the master strategist, with this famous campaign.
- First, perhaps just thinking his ideas planned the campaign.
- Later, believing he actually led it alongside Wu Yuan, Po P’ei, and Fu Kai.

A Possible Reconstruction of Sun Tzu’s Life

Trying to piece together Sun Tzu’s life involves a lot of guesswork. But based on the evidence:

He probably started working for the state of Wu around when King Ho Lu took power (514 B.C.).
He likely gained military experience as a lower-ranking officer during the frequent wars in the first half of Ho Lu’s reign.
If he became a general, he was likely never as important as Wu Yuan, Po P’ei, or Fu Kai.
He was probably present during the attack and capture of Ying (506 B.C.) and saw Wu’s decline the next year.
Yueh’s attack on Wu at that difficult time likely convinced him that Yueh was the new main enemy Wu needed to focus on.
So, Sun Wu was likely an experienced soldier when he wrote his famous book.
The book was probably written towards the end of Ho Lu’s reign (closer to 496 B.C.) rather than the beginning.
The story about training the women might be based on a real event around that time.
Since we don’t hear about Sun Wu after this, he probably died before King Ho Lu, or at least before the final devastating war with Yueh began after 496 B.C.

An Interesting Note: If this timing is roughly correct, it means China’s most famous writer on war (Sun Tzu) lived around the same time as its most famous philosopher of peace (Confucius, traditionally 551-479 B.C.).

The Text of Sun Tzu

It’s hard to find much information about the history of Sun Tzu’s text over the centuries.

Quotes found in early writings show that the “13 chapters” mentioned by Ssu-ma Ch’ien were basically the same text we have today.
Ssu-ma Ch’ien confirmed they were widely read in his time (around 100 B.C.).

Sun Hsing-yen (a later scholar) wrote:

“During the Ch’in and Han dynasties [roughly 221 B.C. - 220 A.D.], military leaders commonly used Sun Tzu’s Art of War. But they seemed to treat it like a secret, mysterious guide and didn’t want to explain it for future generations. Because of this, Wei Wu [Ts’ao Ts’ao] was the first person to write a commentary explaining it.”

As discussed earlier, there’s no good reason to think Ts’ao Ts’ao changed the original text. However, the text itself is often hard to understand. Many different versions (editions) were published over the centuries, especially during the T’ang and Sung dynasties (roughly 618-1279 A.D.). It would be surprising if mistakes didn’t creep into the text over time.

Key Editions and Discoveries

Chi T’ien-pao’s Edition (Mid-Sung Dynasty): Around the 11th or 12th century A.D., after most major commentaries were written, Chi T’ien-pao published a 15-volume work called “Sun Tzu with the collected commentaries of ten writers.”
Chu Fu’s Text (Sung Dynasty): Another version with different readings existed around the same time, but it wasn’t widely circulated later.
The Dominant Text (Until Late 18th Century): For centuries, the main text used was based on Chi T’ien-pao’s edition, even though no actual copy of his original work was known to exist. This is the version found in major collections like the Gu Jin T’u Shu Ji Cheng encyclopedia (1726) and other compilations.
Sun Hsing-yen’s Discovery (Late 18th Century): Sun Hsing-yen (1752-1818), a respected scholar and claimed descendant of Sun Wu, accidentally found a copy of Chi T’ien-pao’s long-lost work in a temple library. Attached to it was another lost commentary, the I Shuo by Cheng Yu-Hsien. Sun Hsing-yen called this the “original edition,” but that’s a bit misleading. It wasn’t the pure, original text from Sun Tzu’s time. Chi T’ien-pao seems to have just copied the common, slightly corrupted version of his day without comparing it carefully to older sources.
Even Older Texts Found: Luckily, two even older versions of Sun Tzu’s text still existed:
1. One was embedded within the T’ung Tien, a large government encyclopedia by Tu Yu (completed around 801 A.D.).
2. The other was similarly scattered within the T’ai P’ing Yu Lan encyclopedia (completed around 983 A.D.).
The Value of Old Transcripts: These encyclopedia versions are incredibly valuable because they preserve the text from much earlier periods (T’ang and early Sung dynasties).
Sun Hsing-yen’s Revision: Surprisingly, no one thought to use these older versions until Sun Hsing-yen was ordered by the government to create a corrected edition of Sun Tzu. He explained:

“Because of the many mistakes in the text of Sun Tzu passed down by editors, the government ordered that the ancient edition [Chi T’ien-pao’s] should be used, and the text revised and corrected. Three other scholars [Wu Nien-hu, Governor Pi Kua, Hsi] had also studied this deeply. So, I have prepared this whole work to be printed as a textbook for military men.”
The “Standard Text”: Sun Hsing-yen and his co-editor Wu Jen-shi used Chi T’ien-pao’s rediscovered text as a base. They carefully compared it with the older versions from the T’ung Tien and T’ai P’ing Yu Lan, as well as existing commentaries and Cheng Yu-Hsien’s I Shuo. They fixed many questionable parts and produced what is now considered the standard text – the closest version we are likely to get to Sun Tzu’s original work.
Structure of the Standard Edition: The edition typically includes:
- Sun Hsing-yen’s preface (arguing for the traditional view of Sun Tzu).
- Ts’ao Ts’ao’s preface.
- Sun Tzu’s biography from the Shih Chi.
- Cheng Yu-hsien’s I Shuo commentary.
- A short collection of notes called Sun Tzu Hsu Lu by Pi I-hsun.
- The main text, with each sentence followed by notes on textual variations and then the commentaries related to that sentence, listed in order by date.

The Commentators

Sun Tzu’s work has attracted an unusually large number of famous commentators over the centuries. The writer Ou-yang Hsiu noted this, explaining that since the tricks and strategies of war are endless, the book could be interpreted in many different ways.

1. Ts’ao Ts’ao (Ts’ao Kung / Wei Wu Ti)

Who: Lived A.D. 155-220. He later became known as Emperor Wu of the Wei kingdom (Wei Wu Ti).
Significance: Almost certainly the first person to write a commentary on The Art of War.
Background: Ts’ao Ts’ao was a brilliant and extraordinary historical figure. His life story reads like an adventure novel. He was one of history’s greatest military minds, known for his large-scale campaigns and incredibly fast troop movements. There was even a saying: “Talk of Ts’ao Ts’ao, and Ts’ao Ts’ao will appear.”
Military Prowess: Ou-yang Hsiu described him as a great leader who fought against powerful rivals (Tung Cho, Lu Pu, the Yuan family) and defeated them. He eventually split the old Han Empire into three kingdoms (Wei, Wu, Shu) and became king of Wei.
Planning: When planning major campaigns, Ts’ao Ts’ao reportedly had all his strategies worked out in advance. Generals who followed his plans rarely lost, while those who ignored them often saw their armies quickly defeated.
Ts’ao Ts’ao’s commentary notes on Sun Tzu are very brief and direct. They sound exactly like the tough commander he was known to be, definitely not like something written by a scholar who only studied books. Sometimes his notes are so short they are hard to understand without their own explanation.

2. Meng Shih

Who: Lived during the Liang Dynasty (A.D. 502-557), although some sources place him later or earlier. His personal name isn’t known.
Commentary: Relatively small amount of commentary compared to others.
Note: Sometimes listed as one of the “Five Commentators” along with Ts’ao Ts’ao, Tu Mu, Ch’en Hao, and Chia Lin.

3. Li Ch’uan

Who: Lived in the 8th century A.D. (T’ang Dynasty). A well-known writer on military strategy.
Commentary: His notes are usually short and clear. He often uses stories from Chinese history to explain his points.
Note: He apparently used a slightly different version of Sun Tzu’s text than the ones common today. One of his books on military tactics was used for centuries. He also wrote “Lives of famous generals.”

4. Tu Yu

Who: Died in 812 A.D. (T’ang Dynasty). Famous for creating the T’ung Tien, a huge encyclopedia about government and the constitution.
Commentary: He didn’t write a separate commentary on Sun Tzu. His notes are taken from the T’ung Tien.
- He often repeats comments from Ts’ao Ts’ao and Meng Shih.
- He might have also used older commentaries by Wang Ling and others.
- Because of how the T’ung Tien is organized, he explains each passage individually, sometimes disagreeing with Ts’ao Ts’ao (whom he usually quotes first).
Note: Although not originally one of the main “Ten Commentators,” he was added to the list later by Chi T’ien-pao.

5. Tu Mu

Who: Lived 803-852 A.D. (T’ang Dynasty). Better known as a famous poet.
Commentary: Even though he didn’t fight in wars, he loved discussing military topics and knew a lot about ancient Chinese military history. His notes are valuable.
- His commentary is very detailed and full of historical examples.
- He summarized Sun Tzu’s main idea as: “Be kind and fair, but also use clever tricks and practical methods when needed.”
- He believed that all military successes and failures in the 1,000 years since Sun Tzu confirmed the truth of Sun Tzu’s advice.
Note: He unfairly accused Ts’ao Ts’ao of changing Sun Tzu’s text (as discussed earlier).

6. Ch’en Hao

Who: Lived around the same time as Tu Mu (T’ang Dynasty).
Commentary: He wrote his commentary because he felt Ts’ao Ts’ao’s was too hard to understand, while Tu Mu’s was too long and wordy.
- The writer Ou-yang Hsiu considered Ts’ao Ts’ao, Tu Mu, and Ch’en Hao the three main commentators.
- Ch’en Hao often criticized Tu Mu’s comments.
- His commentary is decent but generally considered less important than Ts’ao Ts’ao’s or Tu Mu’s.

7. Chia Lin

Who: Lived during the T’ang Dynasty.
Commentary: His commentary is mentioned in historical records from the T’ang Dynasty.
- It’s quite brief and generally thought to be the least valuable of the eleven main commentaries.

8. Mei Yao-ch’en

Who: Lived 1002-1060 A.D. (Sung Dynasty). Also known as Mei Sheng-yu. Like Tu Mu, he was a respected poet.
Commentary: His commentary received high praise from his friend, the famous writer Ou-yang Hsiu.
- Ou-yang Hsiu wrote that earlier scholars twisted Sun Tzu’s words to fit their own ideas. He believed Mei Yao-ch’en avoided this.
- Mei Yao-ch’en understood that Sun Tzu wrote for states fighting each other in his own time, not about ideal ancient warfare or specific government rules.
- Ou-yang Hsiu praised Mei Yao-ch’en for clarifying Sun Tzu’s deep meaning, which is hidden behind simple words and logical structure that other commentators missed.
- Mei Yao-ch’en ignored the biases of other critics and tried to show Sun Tzu’s real meaning.
Note: The editor generally agrees with Ou-yang Hsiu’s positive view and ranks Mei Yao-ch’en higher than Ch’en Hao.

9. Wang Hsi

Who: Also lived during the Sung Dynasty.
Commentary: Offers some original interpretations, but isn’t always careful or reliable. He often compares his comments to Ts’ao Ts’ao’s, usually not favorably for himself.
Note: He reportedly revised Sun Tzu’s text, filling in gaps and fixing errors.

10. Ho Yen-hsi (Ho Shih)

Who: Lived during the Sung Dynasty (probably late 11th century). His personal name might be uncertain.
Commentary: His commentary adds some helpful points. It’s mostly known for including many relevant stories and examples drawn from historical records.

11. Chang Yu

Who: Lived during the Sung Dynasty. Also wrote “Lives of Famous Generals.”
Commentary: Considered the last of the eleven main commentators.
- Not highly original, but very skilled at explaining things clearly.
- His commentary expands on Ts’ao Ts’ao’s very short notes, making them much easier to understand. Without Chang Yu, much of Ts’ao Ts’ao’s commentary might have remained too difficult to be useful.

Why So Many Commentators in the Sung Dynasty?

The last four commentators (Mei Yao-ch’en, Wang Hsi, Ho Yen-hsi, Chang Yu) all lived relatively close together in time during the Sung Dynasty. Why?

Ch’ao Kung-wu explained:

Early in the Sung Dynasty, there was a long period of peace, and people stopped practicing warfare.
But then, around 1038-1042 A.D., a rebellion broke out led by Chao Yuan-hao. Generals on the border suffered repeated defeats.
The government urgently started looking for people skilled in warfare.
Military strategy became a popular topic among high officials.
This interest led to many scholars writing commentaries on Sun Tzu during that specific period.

Other Commentators:

Besides these eleven, other commentaries existed but have been lost. Records mention commentators like Wang Ling, Chang Tzu-shang, Chia Hsu, Shen Yu, Sun Hao, Hsiao Chi, and Huang Jun-yu. Some of these might have just collected or edited commentaries written by others.

Appreciations of Sun Tzu

Sun Tzu’s ideas have fascinated some of China’s greatest leaders and thinkers.

Famous Generals who Studied Sun Tzu:

Han Hsin (died 196 B.C.) - Considered one of China’s greatest generals.
Feng I (died 34 A.D.)
Lu Meng (died 219 A.D.)
Yo Fei (1103-1141 A.D.) - A famous and heroic Sung Dynasty general.

Ts’ao Ts’ao’s high opinion of Sun Tzu has already been mentioned.

Praise from Scholars:

Even literary figures admired Sun Tzu deeply. Su Hsun (a famous writer and father of the even more famous poet Su Tung-p’o) wrote essays on military topics inspired by Sun Tzu. He wrote:

Sun Wu said that in war, you cannot guarantee victory. This is very different from what other books say. Wu Ch’i [another famous military writer] was similar to Sun Wu; they both wrote books on war and are often mentioned together as “Sun and Wu.” But Wu Ch’i’s ideas about war are less profound, his rules are stated more simply and less refined, and his work lacks the unified plan found in Sun Tzu. Sun Tzu’s writing is brief, but his meaning is fully expressed.

Cheng Hou, in a work called “Impartial Judgments in the Garden of Literature,” wrote:

Sun Tzu’s 13 chapters are the foundation of all military training. They also demand careful study by scholars and writers. His words are brief yet elegant, simple yet deep, clear and very practical. Great works like the Lun Yu [Analects of Confucius], the I Ching [Book of Changes], and the writings of Mencius and other philosophers are not on the same level as Sun Tzu.

Chu Hsi (a highly influential philosopher) commented on this. He agreed that Sun Tzu was essential for military training and respected by scholars. However, he disliked comparing Sun Tzu to the most revered classic texts, saying such talk “encourages rulers to be harsh in war and too eager for military action.”

Apologies for War

We often think of China as a peace-loving nation. But we might forget that China has experienced more war, in more ways, than almost any modern country.

China’s military history goes back thousands of years.
The Great Wall was built and defended by huge armies centuries before the Roman Empire existed.
Ancient China saw constant fighting between feudal states.
Later, there were major wars against invaders (like the Huns and Turks).
Dynasties were often overthrown in massive, violent conflicts.
Countless rebellions and smaller fights have occurred throughout its history. War has almost always been happening somewhere in China.

China has also produced many brilliant military leaders throughout history, often appearing during critical times: Po Ch’i, Han Hsin, Ts’ao Ts’ao, Li Ching (who helped found the T’ang Dynasty with Emperor T’ai Tsung), and others. These generals are comparable to the greatest military leaders in European history.

The Conflict: Peace vs. War

Despite this long military history, mainstream Chinese thought, influenced by thinkers like Lao Tzu and especially Confucianism, has generally favored peace and strongly opposed militarism.

It’s unusual to find Chinese scholars defending war as necessary or good. Here are a few examples where writers argue for the necessity of warfare:

1. Ssu-ma Ch’ien (The Historian):

Even though he greatly admired Confucius, Ssu-ma Ch’ien was not completely against war:

Military weapons are tools the wise ruler uses to punish violence, bring peace to troubled times, solve problems, and rescue those in danger. Every creature with blood and horns will fight if attacked. Humans, who feel love, hate, joy, and anger, will certainly fight too. When pleased, we feel affection; when angry, we strike back. This is natural…

So, what about the scholars today who ignore the big picture and relative importance of things? They just repeat old sayings about “goodness” and “culture” and condemn using weapons. They will make our country weak, dishonored, and lose its rightful place. Or, at the very least, they will lead to invasion, rebellion, loss of land, and general weakness. Yet they refuse to change their minds.

The truth is, just like a teacher must use discipline in a family, and punishments are needed in a state, military action can never be completely abandoned in the empire. Some will use this power wisely, others foolishly. Some soldiers will be loyal, others rebels.

2. Tu Mu (The Commentator):

In his preface to Sun Tzu, Tu Mu argued:

War can be seen as punishment, which is a function of government. Two of Confucius’s own disciples, Chung Yu and Jan Ch’iu, were involved in military matters. Today, officials handle trials, imprison criminals, and carry out executions. Leading large armies, destroying cities, taking captives, and executing traitors is also work done by officials.

Torture devices and military weapons serve similar purposes. There’s no fundamental difference between flogging a criminal and executing enemies in war. For smaller crimes, less force is needed; for larger threats requiring military action, more force (like weapons and mass executions) is used. But in both cases, the goal is to remove wicked people and help the good…

[Someone asked Confucius’s disciple Jan Yu if his military skill was learned or natural. Jan Yu replied it was learned.] The questioner asked, “How can that be, since you follow Confucius?” Jan Yu replied, “Yes, I was taught by Confucius. It’s right for the great Sage [Confucius] to handle both civil and military affairs, although my training in fighting is not yet complete.”

Who first created this strict separation between “civil” and “military” roles? I don’t know. But it has led to government officials being afraid to talk about military subjects, or doing so timidly. If someone dares to discuss war, they are immediately labeled as strange and aggressive. This is bizarre – people lose sight of basic principles because they don’t think clearly.

When the Duke of Chou served King Ch’eng, he established rituals and music and valued scholarship. But when barbarians revolted, he went out and punished them. When Confucius held office in Lu and met with the leader of Ch’i, he said: “If peaceful talks are happening, military preparations should already be made.” He scolded and shamed the Marquis of Ch’i, who backed down. How can anyone say these two great Sages knew nothing of military matters?

3. Chu Hsi (The Philosopher):

Even the highly respected Chu Hsi, while cautious about glorifying war, noted Confucius’s practical approach, citing classical texts:

Our Master Confucius told Duke Ling of Wei, “I have never studied army matters.” He told K’ung Wen-tzu, “I have not learned about armor and weapons.”

But at the meeting at Chia-ku, Confucius used armed force against attackers, frightening the Marquis of Ch’i. When the people of Pi rebelled, he ordered his officers to attack them, defeating them. He once said, “If I fight, I win.”

[Continuing Chu Hsi’s point about Confucius using force:] And Jan Yu [Confucius’s disciple] also said: “The Sage handles both civil and military functions.”

Can it really be true that Confucius never studied or learned about the art of war? We can only say that he didn’t specifically choose armies and fighting as his main teaching subjects.

Sun Hsing-yen, the editor who created the standard text of Sun Tzu, wrote something similar:

Confucius said: “I am unfamiliar with military matters.” He also said: “If I fight, I win.”

Confucius established rituals and regulated music. War is actually considered one of the five types of official state ceremonies. It shouldn’t be treated as a completely separate subject.

So, when Confucius says “I am unfamiliar with,” it means there are things even a wise Teacher doesn’t know everything about. People who lead armies and plan strategies must learn the art of war.

But if a ruler can hire a good general like Sun Tzu (who worked for Wu Tzu-hsu), the ruler doesn’t necessarily need to learn warfare himself. That’s why Confucius added, “If I fight, I win” – perhaps meaning if he had to, his wisdom would lead to victory, or he could employ someone skilled.

People today, however, deliberately take Confucius’s words in the narrowest way. They think he meant that books about war aren’t worth reading. They stubbornly point to the example of Chao Kua – a man who studied his father’s military books intensely but failed miserably in actual battle – as proof that learning military theory is useless.

Also, because war books discuss things like planning based on opportunities and using spies, some people think the art of war is immoral and not suitable for a wise person.

These critics ignore that even scholars studying literature or officials running the government need constant practice to become good at their jobs. The ancient Chinese were very careful about letting beginners mess things up.

Weapons are harmful, and fighting is dangerous. Unless a general practices constantly, he shouldn’t risk soldiers’ lives in battle. That’s why studying Sun Tzu’s 13 chapters is essential.

Consider Hsiang Liang, who taught his nephew Hsiang Yu (a famous historical figure) the art of war. Hsiang Yu got a general idea but didn’t study deeply enough. As a result, he was eventually defeated. He didn’t understand that the tricks and strategies of war are too numerous to simply describe in words.

Some rulers, like Duke Hsiang of Sung and King Yen of Hsu, were destroyed because they were too kind or followed rules too strictly in dangerous situations. War is often deceitful and requires clever tricks and strategies suitable for the specific moment.

There’s even a story of Confucius himself breaking an oath he was forced to make, and another time leaving a state secretly in disguise. If Confucius could do such things when necessary, can we really criticize Sun Tzu for using strategies that might seem dishonest?

Bibliography: Other Ancient Chinese War Texts

Here are some of the oldest Chinese writings on war after Sun Tzu, with notes mainly based on the Catalog of the Imperial Library (Ssu K’u Ch’uan Shu):

Wu Tzu:
- By Wu Ch’i (died 381 B.C.).
- Considered a genuine work. In 1 book (or 6 chapters).
Ssu-ma Fa:
- Incorrectly said to be by Ssu-ma Jang-chu (6th century B.C.).
- Must be very old, as it often mentions customs from the earliest dynasties (Hsia, Shang, Chou). In 1 book (or 5 chapters).
- Note: The Imperial Catalog remarks that the three oldest texts (Sun Tzu, Wu Tzu, Ssu-ma Fa) generally focus only on practical military things: raising, training, and supplying armies; strategy, planning, and handling soldiers. This contrasts with later works that often mixed warfare with philosophy, fortune-telling, and magic.
Liu T’ao (Six Secret Teachings):
- Said to be by Lu Wang (T’ai Kung) from the 12th century B.C., a legendary advisor.
- However, the writing style doesn’t seem that old. A writer from around 550-625 A.D. mentioned it, so the forgery isn’t later than the Sui dynasty. In 6 books (or 60 chapters).
Wei Liao Tzu:
- Said to be by Wei Liao (4th century B.C.).
- The original might have had 31 chapters; only 24 exist now.
- The content is generally solid, though its strategies seem different from those common during the Warring States period (475-221 B.C.). The famous philosopher Chang Tsai wrote a commentary on it. In 5 books.
San Lueh (Three Strategies):
- Said to be by Huang-shih Kung (a legendary figure) who supposedly gave it to the famous Han dynasty strategist Chang Liang (died 187 B.C.).
- Again, the writing style doesn’t seem old enough (not Ch’in or Han period).
- Some claim Emperor Kuang Wu (ruled 25-57 A.D.) quoted it, but that quote might have been added later to make the book seem older.
- It was likely written around the Northern Sung period (420-478 A.D.) or a bit earlier. In 3 books.
Li Wei Kung Wen Tui (Questions and Answers between T’ang T’ai Tsung and Li Wei Kung):
- Written as a dialogue between Emperor T’ai Tsung (ruled 626-649 A.D.) and his great general Li Ching. Usually attributed to Li Ching.
- Experts believe it’s a forgery, although the author knew war well. In 3 sections.
Li Ching Ping Fa (Li Ching’s Art of War):
- Not the same as the previous text.
- A short work in 8 chapters, found within the T’ung Tien encyclopedia but not published separately.
Wu Ch’i Ching:
- Said to be by Feng Hou, a legendary minister from ancient times, with explanations by Kung-sun Hung (died 121 B.C.) and praised by General Ma Lung (died 300 A.D.).
- However, the earliest mention is much later, in the Sung Dynasty history (Sung Shih).
- It’s a forgery, but well-written. In 1 book.

Works Attributed to Chu-ko Liang:

Chu-ko Liang (181-234 A.D.) was a very famous strategist. Several works on war claim to be by him, but none are considered genuine. These include:

Shih Liu Ts’e (Sixteen Strategies)
Chiang Yuan (Principles of Generalship)
Hsin Shu (New Book) - This one copies heavily from Sun Tzu.

Other Sources for Military Literature:

Many large Chinese encyclopedias and historical works have sections on war and military writings:

T’ung Tien (around 800 A.D.)
T’ai P’ing Yu Lan (983 A.D.)
Wen Hsien T’ung K’ao (13th century)
Yu Hai (13th century)
San Ts’ai T’u Hui (16th century)
Kuang Po Wu Chih (1607)
Ch’ien Ch’io Lei Shu (1632)
Yuan Chien Lei Han (1710)
Ku Chin T’u Shu Chi Ch’eng (1726) - Imperial Encyclopedia
Hsu Wen Hsien T’ung K’ao (1784)
Huang Ch’ao Ching Shih Wen Pien (1826)

Bibliography sections in historical records:

Ch’ien Han Shu (History of the Former Han Dynasty)
Sui Shu (History of the Sui Dynasty)
Chiu T’ang Shu (Old History of the T’ang Dynasty)
Hsin T’ang Shu (New History of the T’ang Dynasty)
Sung Shih (History of the Sung Dynasty)
T’ung Chih (Comprehensive History, around 1150 A.D.)

And the great catalog of the Imperial Library:

Ssu K’u Ch’uan Shu Tsung Mu T’i Yao (1790)

I. LAYING PLANS

(Planning Before the War)

Sun Tzu said: The art of war is extremely important to the country.
It is a matter of life and death. It’s a path that can lead to either safety or ruin. So, it’s something you absolutely must study carefully. Don’t neglect it.
The art of war depends on five basic factors. Always consider these factors when you plan and try to understand the situation on the battlefield.
These five factors are:
1. The Moral Law (Harmony and Belief)
2. Heaven (Timing and Conditions)
3. Earth (The Battlefield)
4. The Commander (Leadership Qualities)
5. Method and Discipline (Organization and Rules)
The Moral Law means the people completely agree with their leader. They believe in the cause.
Because of this harmony, they will follow their leader anywhere, even risking their lives without fear. They won’t be shaken by danger. (Without regular training and clear purpose, soldiers and officers might become nervous and unsure when it’s time to fight. A general might hesitate when quick decisions are needed.)
Heaven refers to things like night and day, cold and heat, and the timing of seasons. It includes the weather and the natural cycles that affect warfare.
Earth refers to the ground itself:
- Distances (long or short).
- Danger and safety (dangerous terrain vs. safe ground).
- Types of ground (open areas vs. narrow paths).
- Chances of survival (places where it’s easy to live or die).
The Commander represents the leader’s good qualities:
- Wisdom
- Sincerity (being trustworthy)
- Benevolence (being humane and caring)
- Courage
- Strictness (enforcing rules fairly but firmly)
Method and Discipline means how the army is organized:
- Dividing the army into proper groups.
- The system of ranks for officers.
- Keeping roads open so supplies can reach the army.
- Controlling how much money is spent on the war effort.
Every general must be familiar with these five factors. If you understand them, you will win. If you don’t understand them, you will fail.
So, when you make your plans and try to figure out the military situation, use these five factors as a way to compare the two sides:
Ask these seven questions:
1. Which ruler has stronger Moral Law? (Meaning: Which leader is more in harmony with their people?)
2. Which general is more capable and has more ability?
3. Which side has more advantages from Heaven (timing, weather) and Earth (terrain)?
4. Which side enforces discipline more strictly and consistently? (Strong discipline is crucial. For example, the famous general Ts’ao Ts’ao once sentenced himself to death according to his own rules because his horse accidentally went into a farmer’s grain field. He was convinced to cut his hair instead, but it shows how seriously he took discipline. When you make a rule, make sure it’s obeyed. If someone disobeys, they must be punished.)
5. Which army is stronger, both in spirit and in numbers?
6. Which side has officers and soldiers who are better trained? (Constant practice prevents nervousness and hesitation in battle.)
7. Which army has greater consistency in rewards and punishments? (Meaning: On which side can soldiers be absolutely sure they will be rewarded for good deeds and punished for bad ones?)
By thinking about these seven points, I can predict who will win and who will lose.
If a general listens to my advice and follows it, they will win – keep that general in command! If a general does not listen to my advice or follow it, they will lose – dismiss that general! (This reminds us Sun Tzu wrote this book specifically for his boss, King Ho Lu of Wu.)
While you benefit from following my advice, also take advantage of any helpful situations that arise, even if they go beyond the standard rules.
You should change your plans based on favorable circumstances as they happen. (Sun Tzu was a practical soldier. He warns against sticking strictly to plans written in books. While basic strategy principles are clear, you must react to what the enemy does to gain an advantage in real war. A famous example: Before the Battle of Waterloo, a cavalry commander asked the Duke of Wellington for his plans. Wellington replied that since he didn’t know what Napoleon (Bonaparte) would do first, his own plans had to depend on Napoleon’s actions, so he couldn’t explain them yet.)
All warfare is based on deception. (Every soldier knows this is true. The great general Wellington was known for skillfully hiding his plans and movements, fooling both his own side and the enemy.)
Therefore:
- When you are able to attack, make it seem like you are not able.
- When you are using your forces, make it seem like you are inactive.
- When you are near, make the enemy think you are far away.
- When you are far away, make the enemy think you are near.
Use bait to lure the enemy. Pretend to be disorganized, then attack and crush them when they are fooled.
If the enemy is strong and secure everywhere, be prepared to defend yourself. If the enemy is much stronger than you, avoid fighting them directly for now.
If your enemy leader has a quick temper, try to annoy and anger them. Pretend to be weak so they become arrogant and careless. (A good commander plays with the enemy like a cat plays with a mouse – appearing weak first, then suddenly attacking.)
If the enemy is resting, don’t let them rest; keep bothering them. (Or: While you are resting, wait for the enemy to get tired.) If the enemy’s forces are united, find ways to split them up. (Or, less likely: If the enemy ruler and people are united, try to cause disagreements between them.)
Attack the enemy where they are unprepared. Show up where they do not expect you.
These methods for winning battles are secret weapons. Do not reveal them before you use them.
The general who wins makes many calculations and plans carefully (like planning in a temple) before the battle is fought. The general who loses makes few plans beforehand. So, careful planning leads to victory; little planning leads to defeat. No planning at all leads to certain defeat! By paying attention to these points (the five factors and seven comparisons), I can see in advance who is likely to win or lose.

III. ATTACK BY STRATAGEM

(Winning Through Smart Planning, Not Just Fighting)

Sun Tzu said: In actual warfare, the best strategy is to take the enemy’s country whole and undamaged. Crushing and destroying it is not as good. Similarly, it’s better to capture the enemy’s army completely than to destroy it. It’s better to capture a whole regiment, a smaller unit, or even a small company than to destroy them.
Therefore, fighting and winning every battle is not the ultimate skill. The truly best skill is to break the enemy’s will to resist without fighting at all.
So, here is the best way to win, in order:
- Highest Skill: Ruin the enemy’s plans before they start. (This means actively disrupting their strategy, not just defending against it.)
- Next Best: Prevent the enemy’s forces from joining together. (Keep them isolated from their allies.)
- Next Best: Attack the enemy’s army directly in the field. (This is done only when they are already formed up and ready.)
- Worst Policy: Attack and lay siege to the enemy’s walled cities.
Rule: Do not attack walled cities if you can possibly avoid it.
- Preparing the necessary equipment (like large shields, wheeled shelters for protection, and other war tools) takes about three months.
- Building large dirt ramps up against the city walls (to see weaknesses or attack from) takes another three months.
If the general gets impatient with these long preparations, they might send their soldiers to attack the walls like swarming ants. This often results in losing one-third of the soldiers, while the city still isn’t captured. Attacking walled cities can lead to disaster.
Therefore, the skillful leader defeats the enemy’s army without fighting. They capture cities without attacking them directly. They conquer the enemy’s kingdom quickly, without long campaigns.
By keeping their own forces undamaged, a skillful leader can compete for power and achieve complete victory without losing soldiers. This is the method of winning through smart planning (stratagem).
Here are the rules for engaging the enemy based on numbers:
- If your army is ten times stronger than the enemy’s, surround them.
- If your army is five times stronger, attack them directly.
- If your army is twice as strong, divide your army into two groups. (Use one part for a direct attack and the other for a surprise attack or flanking maneuver. For example, one group attacks the front while the other attacks the rear. If the enemy responds to the front, the rear attack can succeed. If they respond to the rear, the front attack can succeed. Dividing the army here is a special tactic, unlike the usual method of concentrating force.)
If your forces are equally matched, you can choose to fight (if you are a capable general).
- If your forces are slightly weaker, you can avoid direct battle (perhaps by maneuvering or finding a strong defensive position). (This only applies if other factors like training and morale are equal. Sometimes, better energy and discipline can make up for slightly smaller numbers.)
- If your forces are much weaker in every way, you must flee or escape.
So, even a small army can fight hard for a while, but if it’s greatly outnumbered, it will eventually be captured by the larger force.
The general is the main support (like a protective wall or bulwark) of the country. If this support is strong and complete in skill, the country will be strong. If the general’s support is flawed or weak, the country will be weak. (If the general lacks ability or knowledge, the army will lack strength.)
A ruler can cause problems for their own army in three ways:
(1) Giving Wrong Orders: By ordering the army to advance or retreat when the general knows it’s impossible or unwise to do so. This is like tying the army’s legs together so it can’t move effectively (“hobbling the army”). (A ruler far from the battlefield doesn’t understand the immediate situation. Command decisions during battle belong to the general on the scene.)
(2) Governing the Army Like a Country: By trying to manage the army using the same rules and methods used for running a peaceful kingdom, without understanding the unique needs and conditions of an army. This makes the soldiers confused and uneasy. (Running a country relies on principles like kindness and justice. Running an army requires flexibility, adapting to opportunities, and different virtues.)
(3) Using Officers Incorrectly: By assigning officers to jobs without considering their specific skills or the needs of the situation. This happens when the ruler doesn’t understand the military principle of adapting to circumstances. This undermines the soldiers’ confidence in their leaders. (Different officers have different strengths: some are wise, some brave, some greedy for advantage, some fearless. A skillful leader uses the right person for the right task.)
When the army is uneasy and doesn’t trust its leadership (because of the ruler’s mistakes), other enemies (“feudal princes”) will likely cause trouble. This situation creates chaos within your own army and throws away any chance of victory.
So, we know there are five essential things for predicting victory:
1. Know When to Fight: The leader who knows when it’s right to fight and when it’s right not to fight will win. (Advance and attack if you can win; retreat and defend if you cannot.)
2. Know How to Use Forces: The leader who knows how to command effectively whether they have a larger or a smaller army will win. (It’s not just about numbers. Skill involves using terrain and timing. With more troops, find open ground; with fewer troops, find difficult ground.)
3. Unified Spirit: The leader whose army has the same spirit and purpose shared among all ranks, from top to bottom, will win.
4. Be Prepared: The leader who is fully prepared themselves and waits for the enemy to be unprepared will win.
5. Capable General, No Interference: The leader who has military skill and is not constantly interfered with by the ruler (the sovereign) will win. (The ruler should set broad goals, but the general must decide how to fight the battles. Interference from home has caused many military disasters.)
Therefore, the saying goes:
- If you know the enemy and know yourself, you will not be in danger in a hundred battles.
- If you know yourself but not the enemy, for every battle you win, you will also lose one.
- If you know neither the enemy nor yourself, you will lose every single battle. (Knowing the enemy helps you attack effectively. Knowing yourself helps you defend effectively. Attack is key to defense, and defense requires planning for an attack. This is a core principle of war.)

IV. TACTICAL DISPOSITIONS

(Positioning Your Forces for Advantage)

(This chapter discusses how armies move and position themselves to figure out the enemy’s situation while hiding their own. Hiding your setup leads to victory; showing your setup leads to defeat. A good general adapts their tactics based on the enemy.)

Sun Tzu said: The skilled fighters of the past first made themselves impossible to defeat. Then, they waited for an opportunity when they could defeat the enemy.
Making yourself safe from defeat depends on your own actions and preparations. But the chance to actually defeat the enemy depends on the enemy making a mistake.
So, a good fighter can make themselves secure against defeat. (This means hiding troop movements, covering tracks, and being constantly careful.) But they cannot force the enemy to make a mistake that allows for defeat.
This is why it’s said: You might know how to win, but not be able to actually do it yet.
Being secure against defeat involves defensive tactics (protecting yourself). Being able to defeat the enemy requires offensive tactics (attacking).
Playing defense usually means you don’t have enough strength (yet) to attack. Attacking usually means you have more than enough strength.
The general skilled in defense hides their forces so well, it’s like they disappear into the deepest parts of the earth. The enemy cannot find them or know their plans. The general skilled in attack strikes suddenly and unexpectedly, like a lightning bolt from the sky. The enemy has no time to prepare. So, by doing this, a general can protect their own forces and achieve a complete victory when they attack.
Seeing victory only when it’s obvious to everyone is not the highest level of skill. (True skill is seeing possibilities before they happen, planning for victory before the battle even starts.)
Fighting and winning battles so that everyone says, “Well done!” is also not the highest level of skill. (True excellence involves secret planning, hidden movements, and disrupting the enemy’s plans so well that you win without even shedding blood. The best skills are often subtle and not easily recognized by most people.)
Lifting a tiny hair in autumn (when fur is lightest) doesn’t prove great strength. Seeing the sun and moon doesn’t prove sharp eyesight. Hearing thunder doesn’t prove you have a quick ear. (These things are obvious. True skill involves seeing and doing things that are difficult or subtle.)
In the past, a truly clever fighter was someone who not only won, but won with ease. (Someone who only sees the obvious has difficult battles. Someone who understands the deeper situation wins easily.)
Therefore, the victories of a truly skillful general don’t bring them fame for being wise (because the world doesn’t see the subtle planning) or credit for being brave (because the enemy often gives up before major fighting occurs).
They win battles by making no mistakes. Planning perfectly ensures victory because it means attacking an enemy who is already vulnerable and essentially defeated before the fight begins. (A general who relies only on fighting might win sometimes but also lose sometimes. A general who can see future possibilities and hidden conditions will never make a crucial mistake and will always win.)
So, the skillful fighter first puts themselves in a position where defeat is impossible. Then, they do not miss the right moment to defeat the enemy. (Making your own position perfectly secure requires careful preparation and planning.)
This means that in war, the winning strategist plans for victory first, then seeks battle. The leader who is going to lose fights first, and then starts hoping for victory. (First, make plans that guarantee victory, then lead your army to fight. If you rely only on force without smart planning, victory is not certain.)
The best leader follows the Moral Law (maintains harmony and belief) and strictly uses Method and Discipline (proper organization and rules). By doing this, they can control success.
Regarding military methods, there are five steps:
1. Measurement: Assessing the terrain and battlefield.
2. Estimation: Judging the enemy’s strength, resources, and overall situation based on the terrain.
3. Calculation: Calculating relative numbers and strength based on the estimation.
4. Balancing: Comparing your chances versus the enemy’s chances based on the calculations.
5. Victory: Achieved when your chances weigh heavier in the balance.
These steps follow each other: Earth (terrain) allows Measurement. Measurement allows Estimation. Estimation allows Calculation. Calculation allows Balancing of chances. Balancing of chances leads to Victory.
A victorious army attacking a defeated army is like comparing a pound weight against a single tiny grain on a scale – the difference is huge. (A disciplined army, confident from winning, has an enormous advantage over an army that is disorganized and demoralized by defeat.)
The attack of a winning force is overwhelming, like a huge amount of water suddenly bursting through a dam and crashing into a deep canyon.

V. ENERGY

(Using Force, Momentum, and Surprise)

Sun Tzu said: Controlling a large army follows the same basic idea as controlling a small group. It’s just a matter of dividing them into smaller units (like regiments and companies) with officers in charge of each.
Fighting with a large army isn’t really different from fighting with a small one. It just requires using clear signs and signals (like flags and drums) to communicate orders.
To make sure your entire army can handle the enemy’s attack without breaking apart, you need to use both direct and indirect maneuvers.
- What are Direct and Indirect Tactics?
  - Direct (or Cheng) methods are straightforward actions, like a frontal attack or a move the enemy expects. It’s how you engage the enemy face-to-face.
  - Indirect (or Ch’i) methods are surprise moves, like attacking from the side or rear, doing something unexpected, or using diversions.
  - The key idea is that these two methods work together and can change into one another. What the enemy expects becomes Direct. What takes them by surprise is Indirect. The goal is to confuse the enemy about your real plan.
Making your army’s attack crush the enemy like smashing an egg with a grindstone – this is done by knowing how to attack the enemy’s weak points while using your strong points.
In any fight, you can use the direct method to start the battle and keep the enemy busy. But you will need indirect methods (surprise attacks, clever maneuvers) to actually secure the victory.
Indirect tactics, when used well, are limitless like the sky and the earth. They are endless like flowing rivers. Like the sun and moon, they set only to rise again. Like the four seasons, they end only to return. (The possibilities for surprise and clever maneuvers are almost infinite for a great leader.)
There are only five basic musical notes, but combining them creates more melodies than we can ever hear.
There are only five basic colors (blue, yellow, red, white, black), but combining them creates more shades than we can ever see.
There are only five basic tastes (sour, spicy, salty, sweet, bitter), but combining them creates more flavors than we can ever taste.
In battle, there are really only two main types of attack: the direct (expected) and the indirect (surprise). But using these two together creates an endless variety of possible maneuvers.
The direct and indirect methods lead into each other. It’s like moving in a circle; it never ends. No one can use up all the possible combinations.
The force of attacking troops should be like a rushing river that sweeps even large stones along.
The quality of decision (knowing when to strike) is like the perfectly timed dive of a falcon hitting and destroying its prey. (This involves holding back until the exact right moment to attack for maximum effect, like waiting until the enemy is close before firing.)
Therefore, the good fighter’s attack will be fierce and powerful (onset), and their decision to strike will be sudden and perfectly timed (decision).
You can think of energy like the power stored in a bent crossbow. You can think of decision like the pulling of the trigger that releases that energy.
In the middle of the noise and chaos of battle, things might look disorganized, but a well-led army will have no real disorder. Even if your formation seems confused, like it has no front or back, it can still be unbeatable. (If units and signals are set up beforehand, troops can separate and rejoin, appearing confused without actually being routed.)
To pretend to be disordered, you must have perfect discipline. To pretend to be fearful, you must have great courage. To pretend to be weak, you must actually be very strong. (You need real strength and control to successfully fake weakness or confusion to fool the enemy.)
Hiding good order by looking disordered is a matter of how you organize your troops into smaller units. Hiding courage by pretending to be timid requires having hidden reserves of energy and potential. Masking strength by appearing weak is achieved through clever positioning and tactics. (For example, hiding your best troops and horses, showing only weak ones, to lure an enemy into a trap.)
So, a general who is good at making the enemy move does so by creating false appearances. The enemy reacts to these fake signals. The general sacrifices something small to make the enemy try to grab it.
By using bait, the general keeps the enemy moving. Then, with a select force, the general lies in wait to ambush them.
The smart commander focuses on the combined energy of the whole army working together. They don’t demand impossible things from individual soldiers. (Consider the army’s overall power first, then use each person according to their skills. Don’t expect perfection from everyone.)
This allows the commander to choose the right people for the right tasks and use the army’s combined energy effectively.
When a commander uses combined energy, their soldiers fight like rolling logs or stones. It’s the nature of logs and stones to stay still on flat ground but roll down a slope. If they are square, they stop; if they are round, they keep rolling. (This is about using positioning and momentum.)
Thus, the energy created by skilled soldiers is like the unstoppable momentum of a round stone rolling down a mountain thousands of feet high. This concludes the discussion on energy. (The main lesson is the vital importance of speed, surprise, and sudden attacks in war. Great results can be achieved even with smaller forces by using energy effectively.)

VI. WEAK POINTS AND STRONG

(Exploiting Enemy Weaknesses, Using Your Strengths)

(This chapter builds on the ideas of attack/defense and direct/indirect methods discussed earlier. A good general understands those concepts first, then learns how to find and exploit the enemy’s weak points while using their own strong points.)

Sun Tzu said: Whoever gets to the battlefield first and waits for the enemy will be rested and ready for the fight. Whoever arrives second and has to rush into battle will be tired.
Therefore, the smart fighter controls the enemy and dictates the terms of the fight. They do not let the enemy control them. (A great general fights on their own terms, or not at all.)
You can make the enemy come towards you by offering them some advantage (bait). Or, you can make it impossible for the enemy to get near you by attacking something important they have to defend.
If the enemy is resting, you can bother and harass them. If they have plenty of food, you can cut off their supplies and starve them out. If they are camped comfortably, you can force them to move.
Appear in places the enemy must rush to defend. March quickly to places where the enemy does not expect you.
You can march long distances without your army getting exhausted if you travel through areas where there is no enemy. (Move unexpectedly, strike vulnerable spots, avoid defended areas, attack where you’re not expected.)
You can be sure to succeed in your attacks if you only attack places that are undefended or weak. (Weak points include places where the enemy general is unskilled, soldiers lack spirit, defenses are poor, supplies are low, relief is slow, or there are disagreements among the defenders.) You can be sure your defense is safe if you only hold positions that cannot be successfully attacked (strong points without the weaknesses mentioned above). (The best defense makes it impossible for the enemy to even know where or how to attack effectively.)
Therefore, a general is skilled in attack when the enemy doesn’t know what locations they need to defend. A general is skilled in defense when the enemy doesn’t know what locations they should attack. (This simple idea is the core of the art of war.)
Oh, the amazing art of subtlety and secrecy! Through you (secrecy), we learn to be invisible to the enemy. Through you, we learn to be silent and unheard. Because of this, we can control the enemy’s fate.
You can advance and be completely unstoppable if you aim for the enemy’s weak points. You can retreat safely without being caught if your movements are faster than the enemy’s.
If we want to fight, we can force the enemy into a battle even if they are hiding behind strong walls and deep ditches. How? By attacking some other important place that they will feel forced to go and rescue. (Avoid direct attacks on strong defenses. Instead, attack something else they value to draw them out or cut their supply lines.)
If we don’t want to fight, we can prevent the enemy from attacking us, even if our camp is barely set up. How? By doing something strange, unexpected, or puzzling that makes the enemy hesitate or become unsure. (This is like using a clever bluff. One famous general, expecting an attack, suddenly opened the city gates, lowered flags, stopped drumbeats, and showed only a few people sweeping. The enemy commander suspected a trap and retreated.)
By figuring out the enemy’s setup (their dispositions) while keeping our own hidden, we can keep our forces concentrated together. Meanwhile, the enemy will have to spread their forces out to guard against possible attacks from different directions.
We can act as one strong, united force, while the enemy is split into smaller fractions. This means we will be many attacking the enemy’s few in any specific engagement.
If we can attack a smaller enemy force with our larger, concentrated force, our opponents will be in serious trouble.
Don’t let the enemy know where you plan to fight. If they don’t know, they must prepare to defend many different places.
Because their forces will be spread out in many directions, the number of enemy soldiers we face at any single point will be smaller. If the enemy strengthens their front, they weaken their back. If they strengthen their back, they weaken their front. If they strengthen their left side, they weaken their right. If they strengthen their right side, they weaken their left. If they send troops everywhere to defend everything, they will be weak everywhere.
Being weak in numbers comes from having to prepare for attacks everywhere. Having strength in numbers comes from forcing your enemy to make these preparations against you. (The best strategy forces the enemy to spread out, then you concentrate your superior force against each weaker part one by one.)
If we know the place and the time of the coming battle, we can gather our forces, even from far away, to fight together. (A great general uses strategy and timing to have different parts of their army march separately but arrive at the perfect spot at the perfect time to face the enemy with overwhelming strength.)
But if we don’t know the time or place of the battle, then our different units (left wing, right wing, front, rear) cannot help each other effectively. This is especially true if the units are far apart. (Without coordination, an army moving in separate columns can be defeated piece by piece.)
Even if I estimate that the enemy (the soldiers of Yueh) has more soldiers than we do, that won’t help them win. I say that victory can still be achieved. (Sun Tzu believed strategy could overcome superior numbers, although historically his state of Wu was eventually defeated by Yueh long after his time. Victory is possible against a stronger foe if you control the situation and keep them ignorant of your plans.)
Even if the enemy has more soldiers, we can prevent them from fighting effectively. Use strategy (Scheme) to discover their plans and figure out how likely they are to succeed.
Test the enemy (“Rouse him”) to learn how they react – are they active or passive?
Force the enemy to reveal their positions (“Force him to reveal himself”) so you can find their vulnerable spots.
Carefully compare the enemy army with your own. Know where you are strong and where they are weak, and vice versa.
When positioning your troops (making tactical dispositions), the best thing you can do is to conceal them completely. Hide your plans and movements.
If you hide your dispositions, you will be safe from the cleverest spies and the smartest enemy planners. They won’t be able to figure out how to attack you.
How to create victory based on the enemy’s own mistakes and movements – that is something most people cannot understand.
Everyone can see the tactics I use to win a battle. But what they cannot see is the deeper strategy and planning that led to the victory in the first place.
Do not repeat the same tactics that won you a victory before. Let your methods change and adapt based on the endless variety of situations. (There’s one basic principle for victory, but countless different tactics to achieve it. Knowing rules isn’t enough; you must apply them creatively like a great leader.)
Military tactics are like water. Water naturally flows away from high places and rushes downwards to low places.
So in war, the way is to avoid what is strong and strike at what is weak, just like water follows the easiest path.
Water shapes its course based on the ground it flows over. A soldier achieves victory based on the specific enemy they are facing.
Therefore, just as water has no constant shape, warfare has no constant conditions. You must always adapt.
The leader who can change their tactics based on the opponent and win because of it – that leader can be called a brilliant, “heaven-born” captain.
The five basic elements (water, fire, wood, metal, earth) are not always dominant; they take turns. The four seasons give way to each other. Days can be short or long. The moon waxes and wanes. (Everything in nature changes constantly. War is the same; nothing stays fixed. You must always be ready to adapt.)

VII. MANEUVERING

(Moving the Army Effectively)

Sun Tzu said: In war, the general gets his main orders from the country’s ruler.
After gathering the army and bringing the forces together, the general must unite the different groups and create harmony before setting up camp near the enemy. (Harmony and trust between leaders and soldiers are essential before starting a campaign.)
After setting up camp, the next step is tactical maneuvering – moving the army into advantageous positions. This is the most difficult part of warfare. (Making plans, gathering troops, and setting up camp follow established rules. The real challenge comes when you start moving and reacting to the enemy.) The difficulty in maneuvering is turning indirect routes into direct advantages, and turning problems or delays into gains. (Make the enemy think you are far away when you are close. Fool them into being slow while you move quickly. Use difficult terrain to your advantage through speed.)
For example: Taking a long, roundabout route to trick the enemy into going elsewhere. Even if you start after the enemy, you manage to arrive at the goal first. This shows you understand the trick, or artifice, of deviation (using indirect paths cleverly).
Maneuvering works well with a disciplined army. It is extremely dangerous with an undisciplined mob.
If you march a fully equipped army a long distance just to gain a small advantage, you will probably arrive too late. But if you send a smaller, faster group (a “flying column”) without its heavy supplies, you risk losing that equipment and those supplies. (Sun Tzu doesn’t favor long marches without supplies.)
So, if you tell your soldiers to pack lightly, march day and night without stopping, covering twice the normal distance (maybe 100 li, roughly 30 miles or 50 km) just to grab an advantage – the leaders of your army units will likely be captured.
The stronger soldiers will get ahead, the tired ones will fall behind. With this plan, maybe only one-tenth of your army will actually reach the destination ready to fight. (The lesson: Don’t make extremely long forced marches just for a tactical gain. These maneuvers should be for shorter distances. Forced marches are very hard on soldiers.)
If you march fifty li (roughly 15 miles or 25 km) to outmaneuver the enemy, the leader of your first unit might be lost, and only half your army will make it in good condition.
If you march thirty li (roughly 9 miles or 15 km) for the same reason, maybe two-thirds of your army will arrive together. (Conclusion: Maneuvering is difficult and risky.)
Therefore, we can assume:
- An army without its heavy baggage and supply train is lost.
- An army without food (provisions) is lost.
- An army without supply bases (stored food, fuel, etc.) is lost.
We cannot make alliances with neighboring rulers until we know what their plans and intentions are.
We are not ready to lead an army on the march unless we know the land well – its mountains, forests, dangerous pits, cliffs, marshes, and swamps.
We cannot use the natural advantages of the terrain unless we use local guides who know the area.
In war, use dissimulation (deception, hiding your true intentions), and you will succeed.
Decide whether to bring your troops together (concentrate) or spread them out (divide) based on the specific circumstances.
When you move fast, be like the wind (swift and leaving no trace). When you move slowly or hold formation, be compact like a forest (orderly and dense).
When raiding and attacking, be destructive like fire. When holding a defensive position, be unmovable like a mountain.
Let your plans be secret and hard to understand, like night. When you move to attack, strike suddenly and powerfully, like a thunderbolt.
When you capture supplies from the countryside, divide the loot fairly among your soldiers. (This prevents uncontrolled looting and motivates the troops.)
When you capture new territory, divide it up for your soldiers to use. (Letting soldiers farm captured land helps supply the army and encourages them, enabling long campaigns far from home.)
Think carefully and deliberate before you make any move. (Consider the enemy’s strength and the opposing general’s skill.)
The leader who has mastered the artifice of deviation (clever, indirect maneuvering) will win. This is the art of maneuvering.

(Using Signals and Managing Army Spirit - from the “Book of Army Management”)

The ancient “Book of Army Management” says: In battle, voices don’t carry far enough. That’s why gongs and drums were created (for hearing signals). Normal objects aren’t easily seen from far away. That’s why banners and flags were created (for seeing signals).
Gongs, drums, banners, and flags are tools to focus the eyes and ears of the whole army on one point.
When the whole army acts as one body focused on these signals, the brave soldier cannot advance alone against orders, and the fearful soldier cannot retreat alone against orders. This is how you handle large numbers of soldiers effectively. (Discipline is key. Acting without orders, even bravely, should be punished.)
So, in night fighting, use many signal fires and drums. In daytime fighting, use many flags and banners. Use these to direct the eyes and ears of your army.
You can rob a whole army of its spirit (its morale and fighting will). You can rob the commander-in-chief of their presence of mind (their calmness and good judgment). (Attack the enemy’s mind and confidence.)
A soldier’s fighting spirit is strongest in the morning. By noon, it starts to fade. In the evening, their thoughts turn only to going back to camp.
Therefore, a clever general avoids attacking an army when its spirit is high (like in the morning). They attack when the army’s spirit is low, tired, and thinking of returning (like later in the day). This is the art of studying moods.
Be disciplined and calm yourself. Wait for the enemy to become disordered and confused. This is the art of keeping self-possession.
Try to be near the goal while the enemy is still far away. Wait rested while the enemy is working hard and struggling. Be well-fed while the enemy is hungry. This is the art of conserving your strength.
Do not attack an enemy whose flags and banners show perfect order. Do not attack an army that appears calm, confident, and well-organized. This is the art of studying circumstances.
Here are some military rules:
- Do not attack an enemy going uphill.
- Do not attack an enemy who is coming downhill towards you.
- Do not chase an enemy who is pretending to flee (it might be a trap).
- Do not attack soldiers who seem very angry or highly motivated (their temper is keen).
- Do not swallow bait offered by the enemy (it might be a trap or poisoned).
- Do not block an army that is trying to return home. (They will fight desperately.)
When you surround an enemy army, always leave them one escape route open. (This makes them believe they can escape, preventing them from fighting with the desperate courage of trapped animals. Then you can defeat them more easily.)
Do not push a desperate enemy too hard. (Even cornered animals will fight fiercely.)

VII. MANEUVERING

(Moving the Army Effectively)

Sun Tzu said: In war, the general gets his main orders from the country’s ruler.
After gathering the army and bringing the forces together, the general must unite the different groups and create harmony before setting up camp near the enemy. (Harmony and trust between leaders and soldiers are essential before starting a campaign.)
After setting up camp, the next step is tactical maneuvering – moving the army into advantageous positions. This is the most difficult part of warfare. (Making plans, gathering troops, and setting up camp follow established rules. The real challenge comes when you start moving and reacting to the enemy.) The difficulty in maneuvering is turning indirect routes into direct advantages, and turning problems or delays into gains. (Make the enemy think you are far away when you are close. Fool them into being slow while you move quickly. Use difficult terrain to your advantage through speed.)
For example: Taking a long, roundabout route to trick the enemy into going elsewhere. Even if you start after the enemy, you manage to arrive at the goal first. This shows you understand the trick, or artifice, of deviation (using indirect paths cleverly).
Maneuvering works well with a disciplined army. It is extremely dangerous with an undisciplined mob.
If you march a fully equipped army a long distance just to gain a small advantage, you will probably arrive too late. But if you send a smaller, faster group (a “flying column”) without its heavy supplies, you risk losing that equipment and those supplies. (Sun Tzu doesn’t favor long marches without supplies.)
So, if you tell your soldiers to pack lightly, march day and night without stopping, covering twice the normal distance (maybe 100 li, roughly 30 miles or 50 km) just to grab an advantage – the leaders of your army units will likely be captured.
The stronger soldiers will get ahead, the tired ones will fall behind. With this plan, maybe only one-tenth of your army will actually reach the destination ready to fight. (The lesson: Don’t make extremely long forced marches just for a tactical gain. These maneuvers should be for shorter distances. Forced marches are very hard on soldiers.)
If you march fifty li (roughly 15 miles or 25 km) to outmaneuver the enemy, the leader of your first unit might be lost, and only half your army will make it in good condition.
If you march thirty li (roughly 9 miles or 15 km) for the same reason, maybe two-thirds of your army will arrive together. (Conclusion: Maneuvering is difficult and risky.)
Therefore, we can assume:
- An army without its heavy baggage and supply train is lost.
- An army without food (provisions) is lost.
- An army without supply bases (stored food, fuel, etc.) is lost.
We cannot make alliances with neighboring rulers until we know what their plans and intentions are.
We are not ready to lead an army on the march unless we know the land well – its mountains, forests, dangerous pits, cliffs, marshes, and swamps.
We cannot use the natural advantages of the terrain unless we use local guides who know the area.
In war, use dissimulation (deception, hiding your true intentions), and you will succeed.
Decide whether to bring your troops together (concentrate) or spread them out (divide) based on the specific circumstances.
When you move fast, be like the wind (swift and leaving no trace). When you move slowly or hold formation, be compact like a forest (orderly and dense).
When raiding and attacking, be destructive like fire. When holding a defensive position, be unmovable like a mountain.
Let your plans be secret and hard to understand, like night. When you move to attack, strike suddenly and powerfully, like a thunderbolt.
When you capture supplies from the countryside, divide the loot fairly among your soldiers. (This prevents uncontrolled looting and motivates the troops.)
When you capture new territory, divide it up for your soldiers to use. (Letting soldiers farm captured land helps supply the army and encourages them, enabling long campaigns far from home.)
Think carefully and deliberate before you make any move. (Consider the enemy’s strength and the opposing general’s skill.)
The leader who has mastered the artifice of deviation (clever, indirect maneuvering) will win. This is the art of maneuvering.

(Using Signals and Managing Army Spirit - from the “Book of Army Management”)

The ancient “Book of Army Management” says: In battle, voices don’t carry far enough. That’s why gongs and drums were created (for hearing signals). Normal objects aren’t easily seen from far away. That’s why banners and flags were created (for seeing signals).
Gongs, drums, banners, and flags are tools to focus the eyes and ears of the whole army on one point.
When the whole army acts as one body focused on these signals, the brave soldier cannot advance alone against orders, and the fearful soldier cannot retreat alone against orders. This is how you handle large numbers of soldiers effectively. (Discipline is key. Acting without orders, even bravely, should be punished.)
So, in night fighting, use many signal fires and drums. In daytime fighting, use many flags and banners. Use these to direct the eyes and ears of your army.
You can rob a whole army of its spirit (its morale and fighting will). You can rob the commander-in-chief of their presence of mind (their calmness and good judgment). (Attack the enemy’s mind and confidence.)
A soldier’s fighting spirit is strongest in the morning. By noon, it starts to fade. In the evening, their thoughts turn only to going back to camp.
Therefore, a clever general avoids attacking an army when its spirit is high (like in the morning). They attack when the army’s spirit is low, tired, and thinking of returning (like later in the day). This is the art of studying moods.
Be disciplined and calm yourself. Wait for the enemy to become disordered and confused. This is the art of keeping self-possession.
Try to be near the goal while the enemy is still far away. Wait rested while the enemy is working hard and struggling. Be well-fed while the enemy is hungry. This is the art of conserving your strength.
Do not attack an enemy whose flags and banners show perfect order. Do not attack an army that appears calm, confident, and well-organized. This is the art of studying circumstances.
Here are some military rules:
- Do not attack an enemy going uphill.
- Do not attack an enemy who is coming downhill towards you.
- Do not chase an enemy who is pretending to flee (it might be a trap).
- Do not attack soldiers who seem very angry or highly motivated (their temper is keen).
- Do not swallow bait offered by the enemy (it might be a trap or poisoned).
- Do not block an army that is trying to return home. (They will fight desperately.)
When you surround an enemy army, always leave them one escape route open. (This makes them believe they can escape, preventing them from fighting with the desperate courage of trapped animals. Then you can defeat them more easily.)
Do not push a desperate enemy too hard. (Even cornered animals will fight fiercely.) (If your enemy has destroyed their own escape route and is ready to fight to the death, don’t push them to extremes.)
Such is the art of warfare.

IX. THE ARMY ON THE MARCH

(Camping, Moving, and Observing the Enemy)

Sun Tzu said: Now we discuss camping the army and watching for signs of the enemy.

General Rules for Movement:
- When moving through mountains, pass over them quickly. Stay near valleys where there is water and grass. (Don’t linger on barren high ground. Staying near valleys provides resources and can be safer.)
Camping Rules:
- Camp in high places (like hills or rises, giving a better view and position), facing the sunny side (usually south or east).
- Do not attack an enemy by climbing uphill to fight them.
- These are basic rules for mountain warfare.
River Warfare:
- After crossing a river, get far away from it. (This might tempt the enemy to follow and puts distance between you and the obstacle.)
When an enemy army is crossing a river to advance towards you, do not attack them while they are in the middle of the river. It is best to let half of their army get across, and then attack.
If you want to fight the enemy, do not meet them right near the river they have to cross. (Wait for them to cross, or you might scare them off from crossing.)
Position your camp (or boats) higher up the river than the enemy and facing the sunny side. Do not move upstream to meet an enemy coming downstream. (Moving against the current is disadvantageous. The enemy upstream could also release floods or poison the water.)
- These are basic rules for river warfare.
Salt Marshes:
- When crossing salt marshes, your only goal should be to get across them quickly, without stopping. (They lack fresh water and good grass, and offer little cover.)
If you must fight in a salt marsh, make sure you have fresh water and grass nearby. Try to position yourself with a group of trees at your back for protection.
- These are basic rules for operating in salt marshes.
Flat Country:
- In dry, level country, find a position that is easy to access but also offers protection. Ideally, have higher ground to your right and behind you, so the danger is in front and safety is behind.
- This is the basic rule for campaigning in flat country.
These four situations – fighting in mountains, rivers, marshes, and flat country – cover key military knowledge. Understanding these helped the legendary Yellow Emperor defeat his enemies.
General Principles for Camping:
- All armies prefer high ground over low ground (it’s healthier and better for defense) and sunny places over dark, damp places.
If you take care of your soldiers’ health by camping on dry, hard ground with access to resources, the army will avoid disease. A healthy army is more likely to win.
When you reach a hill or a riverbank, set up camp on the sunny side. Keep the slope or river behind you and to your right rear. This benefits your soldiers and uses the natural advantages of the land.
If heavy rains upstream cause a river you need to cross to become swollen and foamy, wait until the water level goes down before crossing.
Dangerous Terrain to Avoid: Stay away from these types of ground as much as possible:
- Steep cliffs with fast streams between them.
- Deep natural pits or hollows surrounded by high banks.
- “Confined places” (like areas surrounded by cliffs on three sides – easy to enter, hard to leave).
- Tangled thickets where movement is difficult.
- Swamps or bogs where soldiers and equipment can get stuck.
- Narrow passes, crevasses, or deep cracks in the ground.
Keep your army away from these dangerous places. Try to lure the enemy towards them. Face these dangerous places yourself, but let the enemy have them at their back.
Searching Near Camp: If there are hills, ponds with reeds, hollows with tall grass, or thick woods near your camp, search them carefully. Ambushes or spies might be hiding there.
Observing Enemy Signs (Interpreting Behavior):
- When the enemy is nearby but stays quiet, they are relying on the natural strength of their position.
When the enemy stays far away but tries to provoke you into fighting, they want you to advance (likely because you hold a strong position).
If the enemy’s camp is in a place that is easy to reach, they are likely setting a trap or offering bait.
Observing Enemy Signs (Movement & Environment):
- Movement among trees in a forest shows the enemy is advancing (likely cutting trees to clear a path).
- Seeing many temporary screens or shelters in thick grass might mean the enemy has fled and wants you to suspect an ambush, making you hesitate to pursue.
Birds suddenly flying up from a spot indicates an ambush below. Startled animals running indicates a surprise attack is coming.
Dust rising in a high, narrow column means chariots are advancing. Dust that is low but spread out widely means infantry (foot soldiers) are approaching. Dust branching out in different directions means small groups have been sent out, possibly to gather firewood. A few small clouds of dust moving back and forth likely means the army is setting up camp.
Observing Enemy Signs (Attitude & Intent):
- If the enemy uses humble words but increases their military preparations, they are about to advance. (They might be trying to make you careless.)
- If the enemy uses aggressive language and makes threatening moves as if about to attack, they are actually planning to retreat.
When light chariots come out first and position themselves on the sides (wings) of their army, the enemy is forming up for battle.
Peace offers that don’t come with a sworn agreement or hostages are likely a trick or a plot.
When you see much activity – soldiers running around and quickly falling into formation – it means the critical moment for battle has arrived.
If some enemy soldiers are seen advancing while others are retreating, it is likely a lure to draw you into a trap.
Observing Enemy Signs (Condition):
- When soldiers stand leaning on their spears, they are weak from lack of food.
If soldiers sent to get water start drinking immediately themselves, the army is suffering from thirst.
If the enemy sees a clear advantage but makes no move to take it, their soldiers are exhausted.
If birds gather on a spot, it means the place is empty (perhaps an abandoned camp).
Noise and clamor at night indicates the enemy is nervous and fearful.
If there is disorder or disturbance within the enemy camp, the general’s authority is weak. If their flags and banners are moved around frequently without clear purpose, there might be sedition (rebellion brewing). If the officers seem angry, it means the soldiers are exhausted.
When the enemy army starts feeding valuable grain to its horses (instead of grass) and killing its cattle for food (instead of relying on regular grain supplies), and when the soldiers don’t hang up their cooking pots (showing no intention of returning to their tents), you know they are determined to fight to the death.

IX. THE ARMY ON THE MARCH

(Camping, Moving, and Observing the Enemy)

Sun Tzu said: Now we discuss camping the army and watching for signs of the enemy.

General Rules for Movement:
- When moving through mountains, pass over them quickly. Stay near valleys where there is water and grass. (Don’t linger on barren high ground. Staying near valleys provides resources and can be safer.)
Camping Rules:
- Camp in high places (like hills or rises, giving a better view and position), facing the sunny side (usually south or east).
- Do not attack an enemy by climbing uphill to fight them.
- These are basic rules for mountain warfare.
River Warfare:
- After crossing a river, get far away from it. (This might tempt the enemy to follow and puts distance between you and the obstacle.)
When an enemy army is crossing a river to advance towards you, do not attack them while they are in the middle of the river. It is best to let half of their army get across, and then attack.
If you want to fight the enemy, do not meet them right near the river they have to cross. (Wait for them to cross, or you might scare them off from crossing.)
Position your camp (or boats) higher up the river than the enemy and facing the sunny side. Do not move upstream to meet an enemy coming downstream. (Moving against the current is disadvantageous. The enemy upstream could also release floods or poison the water.)
- These are basic rules for river warfare.
Salt Marshes:
- When crossing salt marshes, your only goal should be to get across them quickly, without stopping. (They lack fresh water and good grass, and offer little cover.)
If you must fight in a salt marsh, make sure you have fresh water and grass nearby. Try to position yourself with a group of trees at your back for protection.
- These are basic rules for operating in salt marshes.
Flat Country:
- In dry, level country, find a position that is easy to access but also offers protection. Ideally, have higher ground to your right and behind you, so the danger is in front and safety is behind.
- This is the basic rule for campaigning in flat country.
These four situations – fighting in mountains, rivers, marshes, and flat country – cover key military knowledge. Understanding these helped the legendary Yellow Emperor defeat his enemies.
General Principles for Camping:
- All armies prefer high ground over low ground (it’s healthier and better for defense) and sunny places over dark, damp places.
If you take care of your soldiers’ health by camping on dry, hard ground with access to resources, the army will avoid disease. A healthy army is more likely to win.
When you reach a hill or a riverbank, set up camp on the sunny side. Keep the slope or river behind you and to your right rear. This benefits your soldiers and uses the natural advantages of the land.
If heavy rains upstream cause a river you need to cross to become swollen and foamy, wait until the water level goes down before crossing.
Dangerous Terrain to Avoid: Stay away from these types of ground as much as possible:
- Steep cliffs with fast streams between them.
- Deep natural pits or hollows surrounded by high banks.
- “Confined places” (like areas surrounded by cliffs on three sides – easy to enter, hard to leave).
- Tangled thickets where movement is difficult.
- Swamps or bogs where soldiers and equipment can get stuck.
- Narrow passes, crevasses, or deep cracks in the ground.
Keep your army away from these dangerous places. Try to lure the enemy towards them. Face these dangerous places yourself, but let the enemy have them at their back.
Searching Near Camp: If there are hills, ponds with reeds, hollows with tall grass, or thick woods near your camp, search them carefully. Ambushes or spies might be hiding there.
Observing Enemy Signs (Interpreting Behavior):
- When the enemy is nearby but stays quiet, they are relying on the natural strength of their position.
When the enemy stays far away but tries to provoke you into fighting, they want you to advance (likely because you hold a strong position).
If the enemy’s camp is in a place that is easy to reach, they are likely setting a trap or offering bait.
Observing Enemy Signs (Movement & Environment):
- Movement among trees in a forest shows the enemy is advancing (likely cutting trees to clear a path).
- Seeing many temporary screens or shelters in thick grass might mean the enemy has fled and wants you to suspect an ambush, making you hesitate to pursue.
Birds suddenly flying up from a spot indicates an ambush below. Startled animals running indicates a surprise attack is coming.
Dust rising in a high, narrow column means chariots are advancing. Dust that is low but spread out widely means infantry (foot soldiers) are approaching. Dust branching out in different directions means small groups have been sent out, possibly to gather firewood. A few small clouds of dust moving back and forth likely means the army is setting up camp.
Observing Enemy Signs (Attitude & Intent):
- If the enemy uses humble words but increases their military preparations, they are about to advance. (They might be trying to make you careless.)
- If the enemy uses aggressive language and makes threatening moves as if about to attack, they are actually planning to retreat.
When light chariots come out first and position themselves on the sides (wings) of their army, the enemy is forming up for battle.
Peace offers that don’t come with a sworn agreement or hostages are likely a trick or a plot.
When you see much activity – soldiers running around and quickly falling into formation – it means the critical moment for battle has arrived.
If some enemy soldiers are seen advancing while others are retreating, it is likely a lure to draw you into a trap.
Observing Enemy Signs (Condition):
- When soldiers stand leaning on their spears, they are weak from lack of food.
If soldiers sent to get water start drinking immediately themselves, the army is suffering from thirst.
If the enemy sees a clear advantage but makes no move to take it, their soldiers are exhausted.
If birds gather on a spot, it means the place is empty (perhaps an abandoned camp).
Noise and clamor at night indicates the enemy is nervous and fearful.
If there is disorder or disturbance within the enemy camp, the general’s authority is weak. If their flags and banners are moved around frequently without clear purpose, there might be sedition (rebellion brewing). If the officers seem angry, it means the soldiers are exhausted.
When the enemy army starts feeding valuable grain to its horses (instead of grass) and killing its cattle for food (instead of relying on regular grain supplies), and when the soldiers don’t hang up their cooking pots (showing no intention of returning to their tents), you know they are determined to fight to the death.
When you see enemy soldiers whispering together in small groups or speaking quietly, it points to unhappiness or discontent among the troops.
Giving out rewards too often suggests the enemy leader is running out of options and trying to keep their soldiers happy because they are in a difficult situation. (Frequent rewards can signal fear of mutiny.)
Giving out punishments too often shows the army is in serious trouble and discipline is breaking down. (Harsh punishments might be needed just to keep soldiers doing their duty.)
If a leader acts tough and bullying at first, but then gets scared when they see the enemy’s numbers, it shows a severe lack of intelligence and confidence.
When enemy messengers (envoys) come to you speaking politely with compliments, it’s a sign the enemy wants a temporary stop in the fighting (a truce). (They might be exhausted or trying to buy time.)
If the enemy’s army marches up angrily, faces your army for a long time, but doesn’t actually attack or leave, be very watchful. They might be planning a trick, like a flank attack or an ambush, while trying to distract you.
If your army has the same number of soldiers as the enemy, that’s enough, but it means you probably can’t win with a direct frontal attack. Instead, you should gather all your strength, watch the enemy very closely, possibly get reinforcements, and look for opportunities to use strategy and surprise.
A general who doesn’t think ahead (has no forethought) and treats their opponents lightly (doesn’t respect their capabilities) is sure to be captured. (Even a weak enemy can be dangerous, like bees or scorpions having poison. Don’t underestimate anyone.)
If you punish soldiers before they trust you and feel loyal to you, they won’t obey properly. Disobedient soldiers are useless. But, even if soldiers trust you, if you don’t enforce punishments when rules are broken, they will also become useless.
Therefore, treat soldiers kindly and humanely at first to build loyalty. But, maintain control using firm and consistent iron discipline. This combination is the sure way to victory.
If commands are consistently enforced during training, the army will be well-disciplined. If commands are not consistently enforced, the army’s discipline will be poor.
If a general shows confidence in their soldiers, but also always insists that orders are obeyed exactly, the result will be good for both the general and the soldiers. (The general trusts the soldiers, and the soldiers trust the general. This mutual confidence leads to success. A good leader isn’t swayed by minor doubts or constantly changing small details.)

X. TERRAIN

(Understanding Different Types of Ground)

(This chapter discusses different types of ground and how they affect military operations. It also covers major mistakes a general can make.)

Sun Tzu said: We can recognize six kinds of terrain:
1. Accessible ground: Easy for both sides to travel across.
2. Entangling ground: Easy to get into, but hard to get out of (like net).
3. Temporizing ground: Ground where neither side gains an advantage by attacking first (leading to delays).
4. Narrow passes: Constricted routes.
5. Precipitous heights: Steep cliffs or mountains.
6. Positions at a great distance: Being located far from the enemy.
Accessible Ground: Ground that both sides can cross freely.
Rule: On accessible ground, try to get there before the enemy. Occupy the high and sunny spots first. Carefully protect your supply lines. If you do this, you can fight with an advantage. (Protecting supply lines is vital for an army’s survival and ability to fight.)
Entangling Ground: Ground that you can leave, but it’s very hard to return to once you’ve left.
Rule: From entangling ground, if the enemy is unprepared, you can attack and defeat them. But if the enemy is prepared, and you attack but fail, it will be impossible to retreat safely. Disaster will follow.
Temporizing Ground: Ground where neither side benefits from making the first move. The situation becomes a stalemate.
Rule: On temporizing ground, even if the enemy tries to lure you out with tempting bait (like pretending to run away), it’s wise not to advance. Instead, pretend to retreat yourself, tricking the enemy into coming after you. When only part of their army has advanced, you can attack them with an advantage.
Narrow Passes:
- Rule: If you can occupy narrow passes first, guard them strongly and wait for the enemy to arrive. (This gives you the advantage and control.)
If the enemy occupies the pass before you: Do not attack if the pass is well-defended. Only attack if you know it is weakly defended.
Precipitous Heights: (Steep cliffs or mountains)
- Rule: If you get there before the enemy, occupy the high and sunny spots and wait for them to try and come up to you. (Securing high ground prevents the enemy from dictating your actions and offers protection from natural disasters like floods.)
If the enemy has occupied the heights before you, do not follow them up. Instead, retreat and try to lure them away from their strong position.
Positions at a Great Distance:
- Rule: If you are far from the enemy and your armies are roughly equal in strength, it’s hard to provoke a battle. Trying to fight after marching a long distance will put you at a disadvantage because your troops will be tired while the enemy is fresh.
These are the six principles related to different types of ground (Earth). A general in a position of responsibility must study them carefully.
Now, an army can suffer six kinds of calamities (disasters). These are not caused by nature, but by faults of the general. These calamities are:
1. Flight: Running away from the battle.
2. Insubordination: Soldiers disobeying orders.
3. Collapse: The army falling apart under pressure.
4. Ruin: Self-destruction due to internal problems.
5. Disorganization: Lack of order and structure.
6. Rout: Being completely defeated and scattered.
Flight: This happens when, all other things being equal, you attack an enemy force that is ten times larger than yours.
Insubordination: This happens when the regular soldiers are too strong-willed or bold, and the officers are too weak to control them. (Soldiers might openly disrespect orders.)
Collapse: This happens when the officers are too aggressive and eager, but the regular soldiers are weak, fearful, or unwilling, causing the army structure to break down.
Ruin: This happens when higher officers are angry, resentful, and disobedient. They might attack the enemy on their own out of anger, before the commander-in-chief has determined if it’s the right time or situation to fight.
Disorganization: This happens when the general is weak and lacks authority. Orders are unclear. Officers and soldiers don’t have specific, regular duties. Formations are messy and careless.
Rout: This happens when a general cannot correctly judge the enemy’s strength. They might send a smaller force against a larger one, or a weak unit against a powerful one. It also happens if the general fails to put their best, most motivated soldiers in the front lines.
These six situations lead to defeat. They result from the general’s mistakes and must be carefully considered by any leader in command.
Using Knowledge:
- The natural layout of the land is a soldier’s best friend.
- But a great general is tested by their ability to:
  - Judge the enemy correctly.
  - Control the factors that lead to victory.
  - Cleverly calculate difficulties, dangers, and distances.
The general who knows these things and uses this knowledge in battle will win. The general who does not know these things, or does not use them, will surely be defeated.
Loyalty and Judgment:
- If fighting is certain to bring victory, you must fight, even if the ruler forbids it.
- If fighting will not lead to victory, you must not fight, even if the ruler commands it. (The general on the battlefield has the ultimate responsibility for tactical decisions.)
The general who advances without seeking personal fame and retreats without fearing personal disgrace, whose only aim is to protect the country and serve the ruler well – that general is a treasure to the kingdom.
Treating Soldiers:
- Treat your soldiers like your own children, and they will follow you into the most dangerous places.
- View them as your beloved sons, and they will stand by you and fight to the death. (Kindness builds loyalty.)
However:
- If you are kind and lenient but cannot make your authority respected;
- If you are good-hearted but cannot enforce your commands;
- And if you cannot keep order when things get messy;
- Then your soldiers are like spoiled children. They are useless for any practical purpose. (Kindness must be balanced with strict discipline.)
Knowing All Factors:
- If you know your soldiers are ready to attack, but you don’t know if the enemy is vulnerable to attack, you are only halfway to victory.
If you know the enemy is vulnerable to attack, but you don’t know if your own soldiers are actually ready or capable of attacking, you are only halfway to victory.
If you know the enemy is vulnerable, and you know your soldiers are ready, but you don’t know if the terrain is suitable for fighting, you are still only halfway to victory.
Therefore, the experienced soldier, once they start moving, is never confused. Once they leave camp, they are never unsure what to do. (Because they have planned thoroughly and considered all possibilities.)
Hence the saying:
- If you know the enemy and know yourself, your victory will not be in doubt.
- If you know Heaven (timing, weather) and know Earth (terrain), you can make your victory complete and absolute.

XI. THE NINE SITUATIONS

(Different Types of Ground and How to Handle Them)

Sun Tzu said: The art of war recognizes nine types of ground or situations:
1. Dispersive ground
2. Facile ground (Easy ground)
3. Contentious ground (Key ground)
4. Open ground
5. Ground of intersecting highways (Meeting point ground)
6. Serious ground
7. Difficult ground
8. Hemmed-in ground (Trapped ground)
9. Desperate ground
Dispersive Ground: When you are fighting in your own territory near your soldiers’ homes.
- Problem: Soldiers are close to home and might easily scatter or desert. They may lack the desperate courage needed for tough fights.
- Rule: Do not fight on dispersive ground. Focus on keeping the army united and moving.
Facile Ground (Easy Ground): When you have entered enemy territory, but only a short distance, making retreat easy.
- Problem: Soldiers might still be thinking of retreating easily.
- Rule: Do not stop. Push forward quickly. (Some suggest burning your own boats/bridges after crossing into enemy land to show soldiers there’s no turning back.)
Contentious Ground (Key Ground): Ground that offers a big advantage to whichever side controls it. It’s ground worth fighting for.
- Problem: The enemy will also want this ground badly.
- Rule: Do not attack if the enemy holds this ground strongly. Try to lure them away first. If possible, occupy this ground before the enemy does.
Open Ground: Ground where both sides can move around freely, often with many roads.
- Rule: Do not try to block the enemy’s way (it’s likely impossible and risky). Instead, make sure your own forces stay well-connected and cannot be easily cut off.
Ground of Intersecting Highways (Meeting Point Ground): Ground that connects three or more states/territories. Whoever controls this ground first gains influence over the whole region.
- Rule: Form alliances with neighboring states on this ground.
Serious Ground: When you have moved deep into enemy territory, leaving enemy cities or strongholds behind you.
- Problem: Retreat is difficult, and your situation is serious.
- Rule: Gather supplies by raiding fertile areas (plunder). Ensure your army has enough food for a potentially long stay.
Difficult Ground: Terrain that is hard to travel through, like mountain forests, steep cliffs, swamps, or marshes.
- Rule: Keep moving steadily. Do not stop or set up camp in difficult ground.
Hemmed-in Ground (Trapped Ground): Ground reached through narrow passes, with difficult paths for retreat. A small enemy force could trap and destroy a larger army here.
- Rule: Use strategy and tricks (stratagem). Find clever ways to overcome the situation or trick the enemy. (Like Hannibal using burning oxen to escape a trap.)
Desperate Ground: Ground where your army can only survive by fighting immediately and fiercely, with no possibility of escape.
- Problem: You are trapped, like sitting in a burning house.
- Rule: Fight! Fight with all your might without delay. Facing death brings out extraordinary strength.
Tactics for Different Grounds (Summary):
- On dispersive ground, don’t fight.
- On facile ground, don’t stop.
- On contentious ground, don’t attack (if the enemy holds it strongly).
- On open ground, don’t try to block the enemy (stay connected).
- On intersecting highways, make alliances.
- On serious ground, ensure supplies (plunder).
- On difficult ground, keep marching.
- On hemmed-in ground, use strategy.
- On desperate ground, fight hard.
Skills of Past Leaders: Skillful commanders of old knew how to:
- Disrupt the enemy: separate their front from their rear; prevent large and small units from helping each other; stop good troops from rescuing weaker ones; prevent officers from effectively leading their men.
When the enemy was united, these leaders managed to create disorder among them.
They attacked when it was advantageous; they held back when it was not.
Dealing with a Strong Enemy: If asked how to handle a large, well-organized enemy army that is about to attack, I would say: “First, seize something important that the enemy values highly.” Then, they will be forced to react and become easier to control. (Take the initiative, attack their key positions or supply lines, forcing them onto the defensive.)
Speed is Crucial: Speed is the essence of war. Take advantage of the enemy’s unreadiness. Travel by unexpected routes. Attack unguarded spots where they don’t expect you. (Act with lightning speed.)
Rules for Invading:
- The deeper you go into enemy territory, the more your soldiers will stick together (solidarity increases), making it harder for the defenders to defeat you.
Make raids into fertile country nearby to gather food and supplies for your army.
Carefully look after your soldiers’ well-being. Give them enough food and rest, but do not overwork them. Build up their energy and strength. Keep your army moving constantly and unpredictably. Make secret plans that the enemy cannot figure out. (Winning the soldiers’ loyalty and keeping them fit and motivated is key.)
Desperate Courage: Put your soldiers in situations where there is no escape. They will then fight with the courage of desperation, preferring death to surrender. If soldiers are willing to face death, there is nothing they cannot achieve.

XI. THE NINE SITUATIONS

(Different Types of Ground and How to Handle Them)

Sun Tzu said: The art of war recognizes nine types of ground or situations:
1. Dispersive ground
2. Facile ground (Easy ground)
3. Contentious ground (Key ground)
4. Open ground
5. Ground of intersecting highways (Meeting point ground)
6. Serious ground
7. Difficult ground
8. Hemmed-in ground (Trapped ground)
9. Desperate ground
Dispersive Ground: When you are fighting in your own territory near your soldiers’ homes.
- Problem: Soldiers are close to home and might easily scatter or desert. They may lack the desperate courage needed for tough fights.
- Rule: Do not fight on dispersive ground. Focus on keeping the army united and moving.
Facile Ground (Easy Ground): When you have entered enemy territory, but only a short distance, making retreat easy.
- Problem: Soldiers might still be thinking of retreating easily.
- Rule: Do not stop. Push forward quickly. (Some suggest burning your own boats/bridges after crossing into enemy land to show soldiers there’s no turning back.)
Contentious Ground (Key Ground): Ground that offers a big advantage to whichever side controls it. It’s ground worth fighting for.
- Problem: The enemy will also want this ground badly.
- Rule: Do not attack if the enemy holds this ground strongly. Try to lure them away first. If possible, occupy this ground before the enemy does.
Open Ground: Ground where both sides can move around freely, often with many roads.
- Rule: Do not try to block the enemy’s way (it’s likely impossible and risky). Instead, make sure your own forces stay well-connected and cannot be easily cut off.
Ground of Intersecting Highways (Meeting Point Ground): Ground that connects three or more states/territories. Whoever controls this ground first gains influence over the whole region.
- Rule: Form alliances with neighboring states on this ground.
Serious Ground: When you have moved deep into enemy territory, leaving enemy cities or strongholds behind you.
- Problem: Retreat is difficult, and your situation is serious.
- Rule: Gather supplies by raiding fertile areas (plunder). Ensure your army has enough food for a potentially long stay.
Difficult Ground: Terrain that is hard to travel through, like mountain forests, steep cliffs, swamps, or marshes.
- Rule: Keep moving steadily. Do not stop or set up camp in difficult ground.
Hemmed-in Ground (Trapped Ground): Ground reached through narrow passes, with difficult paths for retreat. A small enemy force could trap and destroy a larger army here.
- Rule: Use strategy and tricks (stratagem). Find clever ways to overcome the situation or trick the enemy. (Like Hannibal using burning oxen to escape a trap.)
Desperate Ground: Ground where your army can only survive by fighting immediately and fiercely, with no possibility of escape.
- Problem: You are trapped, like sitting in a burning house.
- Rule: Fight! Fight with all your might without delay. Facing death brings out extraordinary strength.
Tactics for Different Grounds (Summary):
- On dispersive ground, don’t fight.
- On facile ground, don’t stop.
- On contentious ground, don’t attack (if the enemy holds it strongly).
- On open ground, don’t try to block the enemy (stay connected).
- On intersecting highways, make alliances.
- On serious ground, ensure supplies (plunder).
- On difficult ground, keep marching.
- On hemmed-in ground, use strategy.
- On desperate ground, fight hard.
Skills of Past Leaders: Skillful commanders of old knew how to:
- Disrupt the enemy: separate their front from their rear; prevent large and small units from helping each other; stop good troops from rescuing weaker ones; prevent officers from effectively leading their men.
When the enemy was united, these leaders managed to create disorder among them.
They attacked when it was advantageous; they held back when it was not.
Dealing with a Strong Enemy: If asked how to handle a large, well-organized enemy army that is about to attack, I would say: “First, seize something important that the enemy values highly.” Then, they will be forced to react and become easier to control. (Take the initiative, attack their key positions or supply lines, forcing them onto the defensive.)
Speed is Crucial: Speed is the essence of war. Take advantage of the enemy’s unreadiness. Travel by unexpected routes. Attack unguarded spots where they don’t expect you. (Act with lightning speed.)
Rules for Invading:
- The deeper you go into enemy territory, the more your soldiers will stick together (solidarity increases), making it harder for the defenders to defeat you.
Make raids into fertile country nearby to gather food and supplies for your army.
Carefully look after your soldiers’ well-being. Give them enough food and rest, but do not overwork them. Build up their energy and strength. Keep your army moving constantly and unpredictably. Make secret plans that the enemy cannot figure out. (Winning the soldiers’ loyalty and keeping them fit and motivated is key.)
Desperate Courage: Put your soldiers in situations where there is no escape. They will then fight with the courage of desperation, preferring death to surrender. If soldiers are willing to face death, there is nothing they cannot achieve. Officers and men alike will use all their strength.
When soldiers are in desperate situations, they lose their fear. If there is nowhere to run, they will stand firm. If they are deep in enemy territory, they will show stubborn resistance. If there is no other choice, they will fight hard.
Thus, without needing to be organized formally, soldiers in such situations will always be alert. Without needing to be asked, they will do what you want. Without needing restrictions, they will be loyal. Without needing specific orders, they can be trusted to fight.
Handling Superstition: Forbid trying to predict the future with omens or magic. Get rid of superstitious doubts among your soldiers. If soldiers are not worried about bad luck or magic, they will not fear anything until death itself comes. (Focus on practical realities, not superstition.)
If our soldiers aren’t carrying lots of money, it’s not because they dislike being rich. If their lives in war are short, it’s not because they dislike living long lives. (Soldiers are human. If they give up wealth or risk their lives, it’s because the situation forces them to have no other choice. Don’t tempt them with ways to avoid fighting or get rich.)
On the day soldiers are ordered into battle, they might cry – tears wetting their clothes or running down their faces. (This isn’t necessarily fear, but showing emotion because they have decided to fight and possibly die.)
But once they are cornered (brought to bay), they will show the bravery of the greatest heroes (like Chu or Kuei).
Army as a Coordinated Unit: The skillful commander handles their army like the shuai-jan snake found in the Ch’ang mountains. This snake responds instantly: If you strike its head, its tail attacks you. If you strike its tail, its head attacks you. If you strike its middle, both its head and tail attack you.
Can an army be made to act like this snake, with front and rear responding instantly to help each other? Yes. Even enemies (like the men of Wu and Yueh) will help each other if they are in the same boat during a storm.
Therefore, it’s not enough just to tie horses together or bury chariot wheels in the ground to prevent soldiers from running away. Mechanical means aren’t enough. You need your soldiers to have unity, determination, and cooperation, like the shuai-jan snake.
Managing the Army: The main principle is to set one standard of courage that everyone must meet. Level the courage across the army.
How do you make the best use of both strong and weak soldiers? That involves using the ground properly. (Place less reliable troops in strong positions, where they can hold out just as well as better troops in more exposed spots. Position can make up for lower skill or courage.)
Thus, the skillful general leads the army easily, as if leading a single person by the hand, wherever they want them to go.
Secrecy and Order: It is the general’s job to be quiet (to ensure secrecy) and also to be fair and just (to maintain order).
The general must be able to confuse their own officers and soldiers using false information and appearances. This keeps them ignorant of the real plans. (Keep your plans secret even from your own side until necessary. Troops fight better when focused on orders, not questioning the strategy.)
By changing arrangements and plans often, the general keeps the enemy guessing. By shifting camp and taking roundabout routes, the general prevents the enemy from predicting their purpose.
Showing Commitment: At the critical moment, the leader acts like someone who climbs high and then kicks the ladder away. They lead their soldiers deep into enemy territory before revealing their decisive plan or final action. (Commit fully, leaving no option for retreat, like burning boats after landing.)
The general acts like a shepherd driving sheep – leading the soldiers this way and that, without the soldiers knowing the final destination or overall plan.
Summary of General’s Business: To gather the army and lead it into danger (meaning: into enemy territory to engage the enemy quickly and decisively) – this is the general’s main task.
Key Areas of Study: The general absolutely must study:
- The right tactics for the nine different types of ground.
- The advantages of attacking versus defending in different situations.
- The basic principles of human nature (how soldiers react under pressure).
Principles of Invasion: When invading enemy territory:
- Penetrating deeply creates unity (cohesion) in your army.
- Penetrating only a short way leads to scattering (dispersion).
When you leave your own country and cross neighboring territory to fight, you are on critical ground (a situation requiring quick action, as it’s between “facile” and “serious”).
Ground with communication routes on all four sides is intersecting highways.
Penetrating deeply makes it serious ground. Penetrating only a little way makes it facile ground.
Having enemy strongholds behind you and narrow passes in front puts you on hemmed-in ground. Having no place of escape at all puts you on desperate ground.
Final Tactics for Each Ground:
- On dispersive ground, inspire unity of purpose (perhaps by staying defensive).
- On facile ground, ensure all parts of the army stay closely connected (guard against desertion and surprise attack).
- On contentious ground, bring up your rear forces quickly (to seize the key position together or reinforce the front).
- On open ground, watch your defenses carefully.
- On intersecting highways, strengthen your alliances.
- On serious ground, ensure a continuous stream of supplies (forage and plunder).
- On difficult ground, keep pushing forward along the road.
- On hemmed-in ground, block any potential escape routes for your own army (to increase their desperation and fighting spirit, or perhaps to trick the enemy into thinking you will defend when you plan to break out).

XI. THE NINE SITUATIONS

(Different Types of Ground and How to Handle Them)

Sun Tzu said: The art of war recognizes nine types of ground or situations:
1. Dispersive ground
2. Facile ground (Easy ground)
3. Contentious ground (Key ground)
4. Open ground
5. Ground of intersecting highways (Meeting point ground)
6. Serious ground
7. Difficult ground
8. Hemmed-in ground (Trapped ground)
9. Desperate ground
Dispersive Ground: When you are fighting in your own territory near your soldiers’ homes.
- Problem: Soldiers are close to home and might easily scatter or desert. They may lack the desperate courage needed for tough fights.
- Rule: Do not fight on dispersive ground. Focus on keeping the army united and moving.
Facile Ground (Easy Ground): When you have entered enemy territory, but only a short distance, making retreat easy.
- Problem: Soldiers might still be thinking of retreating easily.
- Rule: Do not stop. Push forward quickly. (Some suggest burning your own boats/bridges after crossing into enemy land to show soldiers there’s no turning back.)
Contentious Ground (Key Ground): Ground that offers a big advantage to whichever side controls it. It’s ground worth fighting for.
- Problem: The enemy will also want this ground badly.
- Rule: Do not attack if the enemy holds this ground strongly. Try to lure them away first. If possible, occupy this ground before the enemy does.
Open Ground: Ground where both sides can move around freely, often with many roads.
- Rule: Do not try to block the enemy’s way (it’s likely impossible and risky). Instead, make sure your own forces stay well-connected and cannot be easily cut off.
Ground of Intersecting Highways (Meeting Point Ground): Ground that connects three or more states/territories. Whoever controls this ground first gains influence over the whole region.
- Rule: Form alliances with neighboring states on this ground.
Serious Ground: When you have moved deep into enemy territory, leaving enemy cities or strongholds behind you.
- Problem: Retreat is difficult, and your situation is serious.
- Rule: Gather supplies by raiding fertile areas (plunder). Ensure your army has enough food for a potentially long stay.
Difficult Ground: Terrain that is hard to travel through, like mountain forests, steep cliffs, swamps, or marshes.
- Rule: Keep moving steadily. Do not stop or set up camp in difficult ground.
Hemmed-in Ground (Trapped Ground): Ground reached through narrow passes, with difficult paths for retreat. A small enemy force could trap and destroy a larger army here.
- Rule: Use strategy and tricks (stratagem). Find clever ways to overcome the situation or trick the enemy. (Like Hannibal using burning oxen to escape a trap.)
Desperate Ground: Ground where your army can only survive by fighting immediately and fiercely, with no possibility of escape.
- Problem: You are trapped, like sitting in a burning house.
- Rule: Fight! Fight with all your might without delay. Facing death brings out extraordinary strength.
Tactics for Different Grounds (Summary):
- On dispersive ground, don’t fight.
- On facile ground, don’t stop.
- On contentious ground, don’t attack (if the enemy holds it strongly).
- On open ground, don’t try to block the enemy (stay connected).
- On intersecting highways, make alliances.
- On serious ground, ensure supplies (plunder).
- On difficult ground, keep marching.
- On hemmed-in ground, use strategy.
- On desperate ground, fight hard.
Skills of Past Leaders: Skillful commanders of old knew how to:
- Disrupt the enemy: separate their front from their rear; prevent large and small units from helping each other; stop good troops from rescuing weaker ones; prevent officers from effectively leading their men.
When the enemy was united, these leaders managed to create disorder among them.
They attacked when it was advantageous; they held back when it was not.
Dealing with a Strong Enemy: If asked how to handle a large, well-organized enemy army that is about to attack, I would say: “First, seize something important that the enemy values highly.” Then, they will be forced to react and become easier to control. (Take the initiative, attack their key positions or supply lines, forcing them onto the defensive.)
Speed is Crucial: Speed is the essence of war. Take advantage of the enemy’s unreadiness. Travel by unexpected routes. Attack unguarded spots where they don’t expect you. (Act with lightning speed.)
Rules for Invading:
- The deeper you go into enemy territory, the more your soldiers will stick together (solidarity increases), making it harder for the defenders to defeat you.
Make raids into fertile country nearby to gather food and supplies for your army.
Carefully look after your soldiers’ well-being. Give them enough food and rest, but do not overwork them. Build up their energy and strength. Keep your army moving constantly and unpredictably. Make secret plans that the enemy cannot figure out. (Winning the soldiers’ loyalty and keeping them fit and motivated is key.)
Desperate Courage: Put your soldiers in situations where there is no escape. They will then fight with the courage of desperation, preferring death to surrender. If soldiers are willing to face death, there is nothing they cannot achieve. Officers and men alike will use all their strength.
When soldiers are in desperate situations, they lose their fear. If there is nowhere to run, they will stand firm. If they are deep in enemy territory, they will show stubborn resistance. If there is no other choice, they will fight hard.
Thus, without needing to be organized formally, soldiers in such situations will always be alert. Without needing to be asked, they will do what you want. Without needing restrictions, they will be loyal. Without needing specific orders, they can be trusted to fight.
Handling Superstition: Forbid trying to predict the future with omens or magic. Get rid of superstitious doubts among your soldiers. If soldiers are not worried about bad luck or magic, they will not fear anything until death itself comes. (Focus on practical realities, not superstition.)
If our soldiers aren’t carrying lots of money, it’s not because they dislike being rich. If their lives in war are short, it’s not because they dislike living long lives. (Soldiers are human. If they give up wealth or risk their lives, it’s because the situation forces them to have no other choice. Don’t tempt them with ways to avoid fighting or get rich.)
On the day soldiers are ordered into battle, they might cry – tears wetting their clothes or running down their faces. (This isn’t necessarily fear, but showing emotion because they have decided to fight and possibly die.)
But once they are cornered (brought to bay), they will show the bravery of the greatest heroes (like Chu or Kuei).
Army as a Coordinated Unit: The skillful commander handles their army like the shuai-jan snake found in the Ch’ang mountains. This snake responds instantly: If you strike its head, its tail attacks you. If you strike its tail, its head attacks you. If you strike its middle, both its head and tail attack you.
Can an army be made to act like this snake, with front and rear responding instantly to help each other? Yes. Even enemies (like the men of Wu and Yueh) will help each other if they are in the same boat during a storm.
Therefore, it’s not enough just to tie horses together or bury chariot wheels in the ground to prevent soldiers from running away. Mechanical means aren’t enough. You need your soldiers to have unity, determination, and cooperation, like the shuai-jan snake.
Managing the Army: The main principle is to set one standard of courage that everyone must meet. Level the courage across the army.
How do you make the best use of both strong and weak soldiers? That involves using the ground properly. (Place less reliable troops in strong positions, where they can hold out just as well as better troops in more exposed spots. Position can make up for lower skill or courage.)
Thus, the skillful general leads the army easily, as if leading a single person by the hand, wherever they want them to go.
Secrecy and Order: It is the general’s job to be quiet (to ensure secrecy) and also to be fair and just (to maintain order).
The general must be able to confuse their own officers and soldiers using false information and appearances. This keeps them ignorant of the real plans. (Keep your plans secret even from your own side until necessary. Troops fight better when focused on orders, not questioning the strategy.)
By changing arrangements and plans often, the general keeps the enemy guessing. By shifting camp and taking roundabout routes, the general prevents the enemy from predicting their purpose.
Showing Commitment: At the critical moment, the leader acts like someone who climbs high and then kicks the ladder away. They lead their soldiers deep into enemy territory before revealing their decisive plan or final action. (Commit fully, leaving no option for retreat, like burning boats after landing.)
The general acts like a shepherd driving sheep – leading the soldiers this way and that, without the soldiers knowing the final destination or overall plan.
Summary of General’s Business: To gather the army and lead it into danger (meaning: into enemy territory to engage the enemy quickly and decisively) – this is the general’s main task.
Key Areas of Study: The general absolutely must study:
- The right tactics for the nine different types of ground.
- The advantages of attacking versus defending in different situations.
- The basic principles of human nature (how soldiers react under pressure).
Principles of Invasion: When invading enemy territory:
- Penetrating deeply creates unity (cohesion) in your army.
- Penetrating only a short way leads to scattering (dispersion).
When you leave your own country and cross neighboring territory to fight, you are on critical ground (a situation requiring quick action, as it’s between “facile” and “serious”).
Ground with communication routes on all four sides is intersecting highways.
Penetrating deeply makes it serious ground. Penetrating only a little way makes it facile ground.
Having enemy strongholds behind you and narrow passes in front puts you on hemmed-in ground. Having no place of escape at all puts you on desperate ground.
Final Tactics for Each Ground:
- On dispersive ground, inspire unity of purpose (perhaps by staying defensive).
- On facile ground, ensure all parts of the army stay closely connected (guard against desertion and surprise attack).
- On contentious ground, bring up your rear forces quickly (to seize the key position together or reinforce the front).
- On open ground, watch your defenses carefully.
- On intersecting highways, strengthen your alliances.
- On serious ground, ensure a continuous stream of supplies (forage and plunder).
- On difficult ground, keep pushing forward along the road.
- On hemmed-in ground, block any potential escape routes for your own army (to increase their desperation and fighting spirit, or perhaps to trick the enemy into thinking you will defend when you plan to break out).
- On desperate ground, I would show my soldiers there is no hope of saving their lives (forcing them to fight for survival). (Burn baggage, destroy supplies, make it clear there’s no retreat.)
Soldier’s Nature: It is the nature of soldiers to resist stubbornly when surrounded, to fight hard when there’s no other choice, and to obey quickly when they fall into danger.
Know Neighbors, Terrain, Guides: (These points repeat earlier advice for emphasis)
- We cannot make alliances with neighboring rulers until we know their plans.
- We are not fit to lead an army on the march unless we know the land well – its mountains, forests, dangers, and swamps.
- We cannot use the land’s natural advantages unless we use local guides.
To be ignorant of any of these principles is not fitting for a leader planning war.
Dealing with Powerful States: When a strong ruler attacks another powerful state, good generalship involves preventing the enemy’s forces from concentrating. A good general overawes opponents, which prevents their allies from joining against them.
Therefore, such a leader doesn’t try to make alliances with everyone, nor do they help strengthen other states. They follow their own secret plans, keeping enemies fearful and respectful. This allows them to capture cities and conquer kingdoms.
Orders and Rewards: Give rewards based on merit, not just according to fixed rules. Issue orders as needed for the situation, not necessarily sticking to previous plans. (Be flexible. Give final instructions only when facing the enemy. Reward actions when you see them.) If you do this, you can handle a whole army as easily as directing a single person.
Communicating with Soldiers: Confront your soldiers with the task itself; don’t always explain the whole design or reason behind it. When things look good, show them. But when the situation looks bad or uncertain, tell them nothing.
Deadly Peril: Place your army in deadly danger (where they must fight for survival), and it will survive. Plunge it into desperate situations, and it will come out safely. (This forces soldiers to fight their hardest.)
For it is precisely when an army has fallen into danger that it becomes capable of fighting for victory. (Danger focuses the mind and creates courage.)
Adapting to the Enemy: Success in war comes from carefully adapting your actions to the enemy’s plans and intentions. (Appear to go along with the enemy’s wishes to make them careless, then strike. If they want to advance, lure them on. If they want to retreat, let them start, then attack.)
By persistently sticking close to the enemy’s side (hanging on their flank), you can eventually succeed in killing their commander-in-chief.
This is called the ability to achieve things through sheer cunning and strategy.
Taking Command: On the day you take command:
- Block the border passes.
- Destroy the official permits/tallies (to control movement).
- Stop all messengers (to prevent information leaks).
Be firm and decisive in your planning meetings (the council-chamber) so that you control the situation. (Ensure plans are secret and followed.)
Exploiting Openings: If the enemy leaves an opening (a vulnerability), you must rush in immediately.
Seizing the Initiative: Get ahead of your opponent by seizing something they value. Cleverly arrange things so you arrive at the critical location before they do, even if you seem to start later. (Use spies or deception to make the enemy go where you want them to go, then beat them there.)
Follow the basic rules, but always adapt to the enemy’s specific situation until you can fight a decisive battle.

XI. THE NINE SITUATIONS

(Different Types of Ground and How to Handle Them)

Sun Tzu said: The art of war recognizes nine types of ground or situations:
1. Dispersive ground
2. Facile ground (Easy ground)
3. Contentious ground (Key ground)
4. Open ground
5. Ground of intersecting highways (Meeting point ground)
6. Serious ground
7. Difficult ground
8. Hemmed-in ground (Trapped ground)
9. Desperate ground
Dispersive Ground: When you are fighting in your own territory near your soldiers’ homes.
- Problem: Soldiers are close to home and might easily scatter or desert. They may lack the desperate courage needed for tough fights.
- Rule: Do not fight on dispersive ground. Focus on keeping the army united and moving.
Facile Ground (Easy Ground): When you have entered enemy territory, but only a short distance, making retreat easy.
- Problem: Soldiers might still be thinking of retreating easily.
- Rule: Do not stop. Push forward quickly. (Some suggest burning your own boats/bridges after crossing into enemy land to show soldiers there’s no turning back.)
Contentious Ground (Key Ground): Ground that offers a big advantage to whichever side controls it. It’s ground worth fighting for.
- Problem: The enemy will also want this ground badly.
- Rule: Do not attack if the enemy holds this ground strongly. Try to lure them away first. If possible, occupy this ground before the enemy does.
Open Ground: Ground where both sides can move around freely, often with many roads.
- Rule: Do not try to block the enemy’s way (it’s likely impossible and risky). Instead, make sure your own forces stay well-connected and cannot be easily cut off.
Ground of Intersecting Highways (Meeting Point Ground): Ground that connects three or more states/territories. Whoever controls this ground first gains influence over the whole region.
- Rule: Form alliances with neighboring states on this ground.
Serious Ground: When you have moved deep into enemy territory, leaving enemy cities or strongholds behind you.
- Problem: Retreat is difficult, and your situation is serious.
- Rule: Gather supplies by raiding fertile areas (plunder). Ensure your army has enough food for a potentially long stay.
Difficult Ground: Terrain that is hard to travel through, like mountain forests, steep cliffs, swamps, or marshes.
- Rule: Keep moving steadily. Do not stop or set up camp in difficult ground.
Hemmed-in Ground (Trapped Ground): Ground reached through narrow passes, with difficult paths for retreat. A small enemy force could trap and destroy a larger army here.
- Rule: Use strategy and tricks (stratagem). Find clever ways to overcome the situation or trick the enemy. (Like Hannibal using burning oxen to escape a trap.)
Desperate Ground: Ground where your army can only survive by fighting immediately and fiercely, with no possibility of escape.
- Problem: You are trapped, like sitting in a burning house.
- Rule: Fight! Fight with all your might without delay. Facing death brings out extraordinary strength.
Tactics for Different Grounds (Summary):
- On dispersive ground, don’t fight.
- On facile ground, don’t stop.
- On contentious ground, don’t attack (if the enemy holds it strongly).
- On open ground, don’t try to block the enemy (stay connected).
- On intersecting highways, make alliances.
- On serious ground, ensure supplies (plunder).
- On difficult ground, keep marching.
- On hemmed-in ground, use strategy.
- On desperate ground, fight hard.
Skills of Past Leaders: Skillful commanders of old knew how to:
- Disrupt the enemy: separate their front from their rear; prevent large and small units from helping each other; stop good troops from rescuing weaker ones; prevent officers from effectively leading their men.
When the enemy was united, these leaders managed to create disorder among them.
They attacked when it was advantageous; they held back when it was not.
Dealing with a Strong Enemy: If asked how to handle a large, well-organized enemy army that is about to attack, I would say: “First, seize something important that the enemy values highly.” Then, they will be forced to react and become easier to control. (Take the initiative, attack their key positions or supply lines, forcing them onto the defensive.)
Speed is Crucial: Speed is the essence of war. Take advantage of the enemy’s unreadiness. Travel by unexpected routes. Attack unguarded spots where they don’t expect you. (Act with lightning speed.)
Rules for Invading:
- The deeper you go into enemy territory, the more your soldiers will stick together (solidarity increases), making it harder for the defenders to defeat you.
Make raids into fertile country nearby to gather food and supplies for your army.
Carefully look after your soldiers’ well-being. Give them enough food and rest, but do not overwork them. Build up their energy and strength. Keep your army moving constantly and unpredictably. Make secret plans that the enemy cannot figure out. (Winning the soldiers’ loyalty and keeping them fit and motivated is key.)
Desperate Courage: Put your soldiers in situations where there is no escape. They will then fight with the courage of desperation, preferring death to surrender. If soldiers are willing to face death, there is nothing they cannot achieve. Officers and men alike will use all their strength.
When soldiers are in desperate situations, they lose their fear. If there is nowhere to run, they will stand firm. If they are deep in enemy territory, they will show stubborn resistance. If there is no other choice, they will fight hard.
Thus, without needing to be organized formally, soldiers in such situations will always be alert. Without needing to be asked, they will do what you want. Without needing restrictions, they will be loyal. Without needing specific orders, they can be trusted to fight.
Handling Superstition: Forbid trying to predict the future with omens or magic. Get rid of superstitious doubts among your soldiers. If soldiers are not worried about bad luck or magic, they will not fear anything until death itself comes. (Focus on practical realities, not superstition.)
If our soldiers aren’t carrying lots of money, it’s not because they dislike being rich. If their lives in war are short, it’s not because they dislike living long lives. (Soldiers are human. If they give up wealth or risk their lives, it’s because the situation forces them to have no other choice. Don’t tempt them with ways to avoid fighting or get rich.)
On the day soldiers are ordered into battle, they might cry – tears wetting their clothes or running down their faces. (This isn’t necessarily fear, but showing emotion because they have decided to fight and possibly die.)
But once they are cornered (brought to bay), they will show the bravery of the greatest heroes (like Chu or Kuei).
Army as a Coordinated Unit: The skillful commander handles their army like the shuai-jan snake found in the Ch’ang mountains. This snake responds instantly: If you strike its head, its tail attacks you. If you strike its tail, its head attacks you. If you strike its middle, both its head and tail attack you.
Can an army be made to act like this snake, with front and rear responding instantly to help each other? Yes. Even enemies (like the men of Wu and Yueh) will help each other if they are in the same boat during a storm.
Therefore, it’s not enough just to tie horses together or bury chariot wheels in the ground to prevent soldiers from running away. Mechanical means aren’t enough. You need your soldiers to have unity, determination, and cooperation, like the shuai-jan snake.
Managing the Army: The main principle is to set one standard of courage that everyone must meet. Level the courage across the army.
How do you make the best use of both strong and weak soldiers? That involves using the ground properly. (Place less reliable troops in strong positions, where they can hold out just as well as better troops in more exposed spots. Position can make up for lower skill or courage.)
Thus, the skillful general leads the army easily, as if leading a single person by the hand, wherever they want them to go.
Secrecy and Order: It is the general’s job to be quiet (to ensure secrecy) and also to be fair and just (to maintain order).
The general must be able to confuse their own officers and soldiers using false information and appearances. This keeps them ignorant of the real plans. (Keep your plans secret even from your own side until necessary. Troops fight better when focused on orders, not questioning the strategy.)
By changing arrangements and plans often, the general keeps the enemy guessing. By shifting camp and taking roundabout routes, the general prevents the enemy from predicting their purpose.
Showing Commitment: At the critical moment, the leader acts like someone who climbs high and then kicks the ladder away. They lead their soldiers deep into enemy territory before revealing their decisive plan or final action. (Commit fully, leaving no option for retreat, like burning boats after landing.)
The general acts like a shepherd driving sheep – leading the soldiers this way and that, without the soldiers knowing the final destination or overall plan.
Summary of General’s Business: To gather the army and lead it into danger (meaning: into enemy territory to engage the enemy quickly and decisively) – this is the general’s main task.
Key Areas of Study: The general absolutely must study:
- The right tactics for the nine different types of ground.
- The advantages of attacking versus defending in different situations.
- The basic principles of human nature (how soldiers react under pressure).
Principles of Invasion: When invading enemy territory:
- Penetrating deeply creates unity (cohesion) in your army.
- Penetrating only a short way leads to scattering (dispersion).
When you leave your own country and cross neighboring territory to fight, you are on critical ground (a situation requiring quick action, as it’s between “facile” and “serious”).
Ground with communication routes on all four sides is intersecting highways.
Penetrating deeply makes it serious ground. Penetrating only a little way makes it facile ground.
Having enemy strongholds behind you and narrow passes in front puts you on hemmed-in ground. Having no place of escape at all puts you on desperate ground.
Final Tactics for Each Ground:
- On dispersive ground, inspire unity of purpose (perhaps by staying defensive).
- On facile ground, ensure all parts of the army stay closely connected (guard against desertion and surprise attack).
- On contentious ground, bring up your rear forces quickly (to seize the key position together or reinforce the front).
- On open ground, watch your defenses carefully.
- On intersecting highways, strengthen your alliances.
- On serious ground, ensure a continuous stream of supplies (forage and plunder).
- On difficult ground, keep pushing forward along the road.
- On hemmed-in ground, block any potential escape routes for your own army (to increase their desperation and fighting spirit, or perhaps to trick the enemy into thinking you will defend when you plan to break out).
- On desperate ground, I would show my soldiers there is no hope of saving their lives (forcing them to fight for survival). (Burn baggage, destroy supplies, make it clear there’s no retreat.)
Soldier’s Nature: It is the nature of soldiers to resist stubbornly when surrounded, to fight hard when there’s no other choice, and to obey quickly when they fall into danger.
Know Neighbors, Terrain, Guides: (These points repeat earlier advice for emphasis)
- We cannot make alliances with neighboring rulers until we know their plans.
- We are not fit to lead an army on the march unless we know the land well – its mountains, forests, dangers, and swamps.
- We cannot use the land’s natural advantages unless we use local guides.
To be ignorant of any of these principles is not fitting for a leader planning war.
Dealing with Powerful States: When a strong ruler attacks another powerful state, good generalship involves preventing the enemy’s forces from concentrating. A good general overawes opponents, which prevents their allies from joining against them.
Therefore, such a leader doesn’t try to make alliances with everyone, nor do they help strengthen other states. They follow their own secret plans, keeping enemies fearful and respectful. This allows them to capture cities and conquer kingdoms.
Orders and Rewards: Give rewards based on merit, not just according to fixed rules. Issue orders as needed for the situation, not necessarily sticking to previous plans. (Be flexible. Give final instructions only when facing the enemy. Reward actions when you see them.) If you do this, you can handle a whole army as easily as directing a single person.
Communicating with Soldiers: Confront your soldiers with the task itself; don’t always explain the whole design or reason behind it. When things look good, show them. But when the situation looks bad or uncertain, tell them nothing.
Deadly Peril: Place your army in deadly danger (where they must fight for survival), and it will survive. Plunge it into desperate situations, and it will come out safely. (This forces soldiers to fight their hardest.)
For it is precisely when an army has fallen into danger that it becomes capable of fighting for victory. (Danger focuses the mind and creates courage.)
Adapting to the Enemy: Success in war comes from carefully adapting your actions to the enemy’s plans and intentions. (Appear to go along with the enemy’s wishes to make them careless, then strike. If they want to advance, lure them on. If they want to retreat, let them start, then attack.)
By persistently sticking close to the enemy’s side (hanging on their flank), you can eventually succeed in killing their commander-in-chief.
This is called the ability to achieve things through sheer cunning and strategy.
Taking Command: On the day you take command:
- Block the border passes.
- Destroy the official permits/tallies (to control movement).
- Stop all messengers (to prevent information leaks).
Be firm and decisive in your planning meetings (the council-chamber) so that you control the situation. (Ensure plans are secret and followed.)
Exploiting Openings: If the enemy leaves an opening (a vulnerability), you must rush in immediately.
Seizing the Initiative: Get ahead of your opponent by seizing something they value. Cleverly arrange things so you arrive at the critical location before they do, even if you seem to start later. (Use spies or deception to make the enemy go where you want them to go, then beat them there.)
Follow the basic rules, but always adapt to the enemy’s specific situation until you can fight a decisive battle.
At first, act cautiously like a shy young woman (“exhibit the coyness of a maiden”). Wait until the enemy shows an opening or vulnerability. Then, act with extreme speed like a “running hare”. By then, it will be too late for the enemy to stop you.

XIII. THE USE OF SPIES

(Gathering Information)

Sun Tzu said: Raising an army of 100,000 soldiers and marching them long distances puts a heavy burden on the people and drains the country’s resources. The daily cost will be huge (around a thousand ounces of silver). There will be unrest at home and disruption abroad. People will become exhausted just transporting supplies. As many as 700,000 families will be unable to do their regular farm work. (War is incredibly expensive in money, resources, and disruption to people’s lives.)
Armies can face each other for years, fighting for a victory that might be decided in a single day. Because of this, staying ignorant about the enemy’s situation just because you don’t want to spend a relatively small amount of money (like a hundred ounces of silver) on rewards and pay for spies – that is completely inhumane. (It’s foolish and cruel to save a little money on spies when ignorance could prolong the war, costing vastly more money and lives every day. This suffering falls mainly on the common people.)
Someone who refuses to use spies because of the cost is not fit to be a leader. They cannot help their ruler. They cannot achieve victory. (The true goal of using military force wisely is to bring about peace quickly.)
So, what allows a wise ruler and a good general to attack, win, and achieve things beyond what ordinary people can do? It is foreknowledge. (This means knowing the enemy’s plans, positions, and intentions beforehand.)
This foreknowledge cannot be obtained from spirits or supernatural means. It cannot be figured out just by looking at past experiences (inductive reasoning) or by making logical calculations alone (deductive calculation). (You can’t guess or calculate precisely what humans will do.)
Knowledge of the enemy’s situation can only be obtained from other people.
Therefore, use spies. There are five types of spies:
1. Local spies: Using inhabitants of the enemy’s district.
2. Inward spies: Using enemy officials who work for you.
3. Converted spies: Using captured enemy spies who now work for you.
4. Doomed spies: Using your own spies deliberately given false information to mislead the enemy (these spies are likely to be killed).
5. Surviving spies: Regular spies who go get information and come back.
When all five types of spies are working at once, their activities form a secret system that the enemy cannot figure out. This is called “divine manipulation of the threads.” It is the ruler’s most valuable tool for gaining information. (Great leaders throughout history have relied heavily on spies and scouts to understand the enemy.)
Local Spies: Employ people who live in the enemy’s territory. (Win them over with kindness.)
Inward Spies: Make use of enemy officials. (Look for officials who have been demoted, punished, are greedy, feel overlooked, secretly want their own side to lose so they can gain power later, or are simply untrustworthy opportunists. Approach these people secretly, offer them generous gifts and promises, and bind them to your cause. They can tell you about the enemy’s internal situation and plans, and can even cause trouble between the enemy ruler and their ministers. Be extremely careful when dealing with such spies, as they might betray you.)
Converted Spies: Find the enemy’s spies who have come to spy on you. Bribe them heavily, promise them rewards, treat them well, and convince them to work for you instead. They can then take false information back to the enemy and also spy on their own country for you.
Doomed Spies: Deliberately do certain things openly that are meant to deceive. Make sure some of your own spies know about these fake plans (thinking they are real). Allow these spies to be captured by the enemy. They will report the false information. The enemy will act based on it and be defeated because you will do something completely different. The doomed spy will likely be executed by the enemy once the deception is revealed.
Surviving Spies: These are your regular spies who travel to the enemy’s camp, gather information, and return safely to report it. (These spies need to be intelligent, tough, brave, able to endure hardship and humiliation, and skilled at operating secretly.)
Managing Spies: Therefore, in the entire army:
- Maintain the closest relationships with your spies. (They should have access even to the general.)
- Reward your spies more generously than anyone else.
- Keep all spy-related business more secret than anything else. (Communicate secretly, perhaps “mouth-to-ear.”)
You cannot use spies effectively without good intuition and judgment (sagacity). (You need to be able to tell truth from lies and judge who is trustworthy.)
You cannot manage spies properly without being kind, fair, and straightforward (benevolence and straightforwardness). (Treat them sincerely after you have bought their loyalty.)
Without subtle intelligence and careful thought (subtle ingenuity), you cannot be sure if the spies’ reports are true. (Be alert for spies who might be double agents.)
Be subtle! Be subtle! Use your spies for every kind of task.
Handling Leaks: If a spy reveals secret information before the right time, that spy must be executed, along with the person they told the secret to. (Kill the spy as punishment and kill the other person to stop the secret from spreading further.)
Initial Targets for Intelligence: Whether you plan to crush an army, attack a city, or assassinate an enemy leader, you must always start by finding out the names of the key people around the enemy general: their attendants, aides-de-camp (close assistants), doorkeepers, and guards. Commission your spies to get this information. (This is the first step to learning more and possibly recruiting someone on the inside.)
Recruiting Converted Spies: You must find enemy spies who have come to spy on you. Tempt them with bribes. Lead them away (treat them well, house them comfortably). This is how they become converted spies working for you.
It is through the information from converted spies that you are able to find and recruit local spies and inward spies. (Converted spies know which locals are greedy or which officials might be turned.)
It is also because of the converted spy’s information that you know how to deceive the enemy effectively using doomed spies.
And finally, it is through the converted spy’s information that you can use surviving spies effectively for specific missions at the right times.
The ultimate goal of using all five kinds of spies is to get knowledge of the enemy. This knowledge must come from the converted spy first. Therefore, you must treat converted spies with the greatest generosity.

XIII. THE USE OF SPIES

(Gathering Information)

Sun Tzu said: Raising an army of 100,000 soldiers and marching them long distances puts a heavy burden on the people and drains the country’s resources. The daily cost will be huge (around a thousand ounces of silver). There will be unrest at home and disruption abroad. People will become exhausted just transporting supplies. As many as 700,000 families will be unable to do their regular farm work. (War is incredibly expensive in money, resources, and disruption to people’s lives.)
Armies can face each other for years, fighting for a victory that might be decided in a single day. Because of this, staying ignorant about the enemy’s situation just because you don’t want to spend a relatively small amount of money (like a hundred ounces of silver) on rewards and pay for spies – that is completely inhumane. (It’s foolish and cruel to save a little money on spies when ignorance could prolong the war, costing vastly more money and lives every day. This suffering falls mainly on the common people.)
Someone who refuses to use spies because of the cost is not fit to be a leader. They cannot help their ruler. They cannot achieve victory. (The true goal of using military force wisely is to bring about peace quickly.)
So, what allows a wise ruler and a good general to attack, win, and achieve things beyond what ordinary people can do? It is foreknowledge. (This means knowing the enemy’s plans, positions, and intentions beforehand.)
This foreknowledge cannot be obtained from spirits or supernatural means. It cannot be figured out just by looking at past experiences (inductive reasoning) or by making logical calculations alone (deductive calculation). (You can’t guess or calculate precisely what humans will do.)
Knowledge of the enemy’s situation can only be obtained from other people.
Therefore, use spies. There are five types of spies:
1. Local spies: Using inhabitants of the enemy’s district.
2. Inward spies: Using enemy officials who work for you.
3. Converted spies: Using captured enemy spies who now work for you.
4. Doomed spies: Using your own spies deliberately given false information to mislead the enemy (these spies are likely to be killed).
5. Surviving spies: Regular spies who go get information and come back.
When all five types of spies are working at once, their activities form a secret system that the enemy cannot figure out. This is called “divine manipulation of the threads.” It is the ruler’s most valuable tool for gaining information. (Great leaders throughout history have relied heavily on spies and scouts to understand the enemy.)
Local Spies: Employ people who live in the enemy’s territory. (Win them over with kindness.)
Inward Spies: Make use of enemy officials. (Look for officials who have been demoted, punished, are greedy, feel overlooked, secretly want their own side to lose so they can gain power later, or are simply untrustworthy opportunists. Approach these people secretly, offer them generous gifts and promises, and bind them to your cause. They can tell you about the enemy’s internal situation and plans, and can even cause trouble between the enemy ruler and their ministers. Be extremely careful when dealing with such spies, as they might betray you.)
Converted Spies: Find the enemy’s spies who have come to spy on you. Bribe them heavily, promise them rewards, treat them well, and convince them to work for you instead. They can then take false information back to the enemy and also spy on their own country for you.
Doomed Spies: Deliberately do certain things openly that are meant to deceive. Make sure some of your own spies know about these fake plans (thinking they are real). Allow these spies to be captured by the enemy. They will report the false information. The enemy will act based on it and be defeated because you will do something completely different. The doomed spy will likely be executed by the enemy once the deception is revealed.
Surviving Spies: These are your regular spies who travel to the enemy’s camp, gather information, and return safely to report it. (These spies need to be intelligent, tough, brave, able to endure hardship and humiliation, and skilled at operating secretly.)
Managing Spies: Therefore, in the entire army:
- Maintain the closest relationships with your spies. (They should have access even to the general.)
- Reward your spies more generously than anyone else.
- Keep all spy-related business more secret than anything else. (Communicate secretly, perhaps “mouth-to-ear.”)
You cannot use spies effectively without good intuition and judgment (sagacity). (You need to be able to tell truth from lies and judge who is trustworthy.)
You cannot manage spies properly without being kind, fair, and straightforward (benevolence and straightforwardness). (Treat them sincerely after you have bought their loyalty.)
Without subtle intelligence and careful thought (subtle ingenuity), you cannot be sure if the spies’ reports are true. (Be alert for spies who might be double agents.)
Be subtle! Be subtle! Use your spies for every kind of task.
Handling Leaks: If a spy reveals secret information before the right time, that spy must be executed, along with the person they told the secret to. (Kill the spy as punishment and kill the other person to stop the secret from spreading further.)
Initial Targets for Intelligence: Whether you plan to crush an army, attack a city, or assassinate an enemy leader, you must always start by finding out the names of the key people around the enemy general: their attendants, aides-de-camp (close assistants), doorkeepers, and guards. Commission your spies to get this information. (This is the first step to learning more and possibly recruiting someone on the inside.)
Recruiting Converted Spies: You must find enemy spies who have come to spy on you. Tempt them with bribes. Lead them away (treat them well, house them comfortably). This is how they become converted spies working for you.
It is through the information from converted spies that you are able to find and recruit local spies and inward spies. (Converted spies know which locals are greedy or which officials might be turned.)
It is also because of the converted spy’s information that you know how to deceive the enemy effectively using doomed spies.
And finally, it is through the converted spy’s information that you can use surviving spies effectively for specific missions at the right times.
The ultimate goal of using all five kinds of spies is to get knowledge of the enemy. This knowledge must first come from the converted spy. Therefore, it is essential that converted spies be treated with the utmost generosity.
Historical Examples: In the past, the rise of the Yin dynasty was helped by I Chih, who had previously served their enemy, the Hsia dynasty. Likewise, the rise of the Chou dynasty was helped by Lu Ya, who had previously served their enemy, the Yin dynasty. (Sun Tzu suggests these famous figures acted like converted spies, using their inside knowledge of their former masters’ weaknesses to help the new dynasties rise to power. Some later commentators disagree, arguing these men were simply talented individuals changing sides for noble reasons, not acting as spies.)
Therefore, only the enlightened ruler and the wise general will use the army’s highest intelligence (meaning, the best spies or the most capable people directing espionage) for spying. By doing this, they achieve great results. Spies are essential to warfare, because an army’s ability to move and act effectively depends on the information they provide. (An army without spies is like a person without eyes or ears. However, relying on spies can also be dangerous if not done carefully.)