The Art of War

INTRODUCTION Sun Wu and his Book

This introduction explores the historical figure Sun Wu, also known as Sun Tzu, and his famous work, The Art of War.

Who Was Sun Wu? The Story from Ssu-ma Ch’ien

The ancient historian Ssu-ma Ch’ien tells us about Sun Wu.

Sun Tzu’s Famous Demonstration

Sun Tzu Wu came from the Chi State. His book, The Art of War, caught the attention of Ho Lu, the King of Wu. King Ho Lu told Sun Tzu, “I’ve read your 13 chapters carefully. Can I test your ideas about managing soldiers, just a little?”

Sun Tzu replied, “Yes, you can.”

King Ho Lu then asked, “Can we use women for this test?”

Sun Tzu again said yes. So, they brought 180 women from the palace. Sun Tzu divided them into two groups. He put one of the King’s favorite palace women in charge of each group. He told all the women to pick up spears.

Then, he asked them, “I suppose you know your front from your back, and your right hand from your left hand?”

The women said, “Yes.”

Sun Tzu explained, “When I say ‘Eyes front,’ look straight ahead. When I say ‘Left turn,’ face your left. When I say ‘Right turn,’ face your right. When I say ‘About turn,’ turn completely around to face your back.”

The women agreed again. After explaining the commands, Sun Tzu set up weapons for the drill to begin. He gave the order “Right turn” to the sound of drums. But the women just started laughing.

Sun Tzu said, “If commands are not clear, and if orders are not fully understood, the general is to blame.”

So, he started drilling them again. This time, he ordered “Left turn.” Once more, the women just burst out laughing.

Sun Tzu then said, “If commands are not clear and orders are not fully understood, the general is to blame. But if his orders are clear, and the soldiers still disobey, then it’s the fault of their officers.”

With that, he ordered the leaders of the two groups—the King’s favorite women—to be beheaded.

King Ho Lu was watching from a pavilion. When he saw his favorite women were about to be executed, he was very alarmed. He quickly sent a message: “I am now convinced of the general’s ability to command troops. If I lose these two women, my food and drink will lose their taste. I wish for them not to be beheaded.”

Sun Tzu replied, “I have received your command to be the general of your forces. As general, there are some of Your Majesty’s commands that I cannot accept.”

So, he had the two leaders beheaded. He immediately appointed the next two women in line as the new leaders. After this, the drums sounded for the drill once more. This time, the women followed every command perfectly—turning right or left, marching forward or turning back, kneeling or standing. They did it with complete accuracy and did not dare to make a sound.

Then, Sun Tzu sent a message to the King: “Your soldiers, Sir, are now well-drilled and disciplined. They are ready for your inspection. They can do whatever you command. If you order them to go through fire and water, they will not disobey.”

But the King replied, “Let the general stop the drill and return to camp. I do not wish to come down and inspect the troops.”

Sun Tzu then remarked, “The King only likes the idea of military skill; he can’t put it into practice when it affects him personally.”

After this incident, King Ho Lu saw that Sun Tzu truly knew how to lead an army. He appointed him as general.

• In the west, Sun Tzu defeated the Chu State and advanced into its capital, Ying.
• In the north, he intimidated the states of Chi and Chin.
• His fame spread among the feudal rulers.
• Sun Tzu shared in the power and success of the King.

This is all Ssu-ma Ch’ien tells us about Sun Tzu himself in that particular chapter.

Sun Pin: A Famous Descendant

Ssu-ma Ch’ien also writes about Sun Pin, a descendant of Sun Wu. Sun Pin was born about a hundred years after Sun Wu’s death and was also a brilliant military leader of his time. The historian also refers to him as “Sun Tzu.” In his introduction, Ssu-ma Ch’ien wrote, “Sun Tzu had his feet cut off but continued to discuss the art of war.” This “Sun Tzu” was likely Sun Pin. The name “Pin” might have been a nickname given to him after this terrible punishment, or the story might have been created to explain the name. Sun Pin’s most famous victory, the defeat of his rival P’ang Chuan, is briefly mentioned elsewhere.

Other Mentions of Sun Wu in Ssu-ma Ch’ien’s History

Ssu-ma Ch’ien mentions the older Sun Tzu in two other places:

1. Advice on Attacking Ying: In 512 B.C., the third year of his rule, King Ho Lu of Wu went to war against the Chu State with his advisors Tzu-hsu (Wu Yuan) and Po Pei. They captured the town of Shu and killed two princes who had previously been generals for Wu. The King then considered attacking Ying, the capital of Ch’u. However, General Sun Wu advised against it, saying, “The army is tired. It’s not possible yet. We need to wait.”

   Later, in 506 B.C. (the ninth year of Ho Lu’s reign), the King asked Wu Tzu-hsu and Sun Wu, “You previously said we couldn’t enter Ying. Is the time right now?” The two men replied, “Ch’u’s general, Tzu-chang, is greedy and selfish. The rulers of Tang and Tsai both dislike him. If Your Majesty decides on a major attack, you must get Tang and Tsai on your side. Then you might succeed.” King Ho Lu followed their advice. He defeated Chu in five battles and marched into their capital, Ying.

   This is the last recorded event involving Sun Wu. He probably did not live longer than King Ho Lu, who died in 496 B.C. from a wound.

2. Famous Soldiers of the Era: Another chapter in Ssu-ma Ch’ien’s work states: “From this time on, many famous soldiers appeared one after another: Kao-fan, who worked for the Chin State; Wang-tzu, in the service of Chi; and Sun Wu, in the service of Wu. These men developed and clarified the principles of war.”

Ssu-ma Ch’ien clearly believed that Sun Wu was a real historical person. Except for one other source (discussed later), he is by far the most important authority on that time period.

Other Early Writings About Sun Tzu

The Wu Yueh Ch’un Ch’iu

There’s a work called the Wu Yueh Ch’un Ch’iu, supposedly written by Chao Yeh in the 1st century A.D. It’s uncertain if Chao Yeh really wrote it. Even if he did, his account isn’t very reliable because it’s mostly based on Ssu-ma Ch’ien’s Shih Chi but adds fictional details. The story of Sun Tzu in this book offers a few new points:

• Wu Tzu-hsu was the one who first recommended Sun Tzu to King Ho Lu.
• It says Sun Tzu was from the Wu State (Ssu-ma Ch’ien said Chi State).
• It claims Sun Tzu had lived a quiet, retired life, and people didn’t know about his abilities.

The Huai-nan Tzu

The Huai-nan Tzu contains this line: “When the ruler and ministers are confused and stubborn, even a Sun Tzu cannot defeat the enemy.” If this work is genuine (and it’s currently considered to be), this is the earliest direct mention of Sun Tzu. Huai-nan Tzu died in 122 B.C., many years before Ssu-ma Ch’ien’s Shih Chi was published.

Liu Hsiang’s Comment

Liu Hsiang, who lived from 80 to 9 B.C., wrote: “The reason Sun Tzu defeated Ch’u’s 200,000 soldiers with only 30,000 men was because Ch’u’s army was undisciplined.”

Teng Ming-shih’s Account

Teng Ming-shih provides more personal details about Sun Wu, but their source is unknown and they are not considered reliable:

• He claims Sun Wu’s grandfather received the surname “Sun” from Duke Ching of Chi (who ruled from 547-490 B.C.).
• Sun Wu’s father, Sun Ping, became a minister in the Chi State.
• Sun Wu himself (also known by the style name Chang-ching) fled to the Wu State because of a rebellion.
• He had three sons. The second son, Ming, was supposedly the father of Sun Pin. This would make Sun Pin the grandson of Sun Wu.
• This timeline is considered impossible because Sun Pin’s famous victory over Wei was in 341 B.C., too long after Sun Wu’s time for him to be a grandson.

Ts’ao Ts’ao’s Preface to The Art of War

The famous warlord Ts’ao Ts’ao (also known as Wei Wu Ti), who lived much later, wrote a short preface for his edition of Sun Tzu’s work. Here’s what he said:

“I have heard that ancient people used bows and arrows effectively.

• The historical text Shu Chu lists ‘the army’ as one of the eight important aspects of government.
• The I Ching (Book of Changes) says: ‘An army shows firmness and justice; an experienced leader will have good luck.’
• The Shih Ching (Book of Songs) says: ‘The King became powerfully angry and organized his troops.’
• The legendary Yellow Emperor, along with King Tang the Completer and King Wu Wang, all used weapons like spears and battle-axes to help their people.
• The military text Ssu-ma Fa says: ‘If one person intentionally kills another, that person may also be rightfully killed.’

He who relies only on fighting will be destroyed. He who relies only on peaceful methods will die out. Examples of this are Fu Chai (who relied too much on war) on one side, and Yen Wang (who relied too much on peace) on the other.

When it comes to military affairs, the wise ruler’s usual approach is to keep the peace. He only uses his forces when necessary. He will not use armed force unless he absolutely has to.

I have read many books about war and fighting. But the work written by Sun Wu is the deepest and most insightful of them all. Sun Tzu was from the Ch’i state, and his personal name was Wu. He wrote The Art of War in 13 chapters for Ho Lu, King of Wu. His principles were tested on women, and after that, he was made a general. He led an army to the west, defeated the Ch’u state, and entered its capital, Ying. In the north, his actions made Chi and Chin respectful and fearful. More than a hundred years after his time, Sun Pin lived. He was a descendant of Wu.

In his discussion of careful thinking and planning, the importance of moving troops quickly, clarity of ideas, and the depth of his strategies, Sun Tzu is beyond any criticism. However, people of my time have not understood the full meaning of his instructions. They practice the small details found in his work but have missed its main purpose. That is why I have decided to write a general explanation of the whole book.”

One important thing to note from Ts’ao Ts’ao’s preface is his clear statement that the 13 chapters were specifically written for King Ho Lu. This idea is supported by evidence within The Art of War itself, where it seems the author is addressing a ruler.

The Question of the 82 Chapters

The historical record Han Shu, in its section on books, lists an entry that has caused much debate: “The works of Sun Tzu of Wu in 82 pien (or chapters), with diagrams in 9 chuan (scrolls or sections).”

This is clearly much more than the 13 chapters Ssu-ma Ch’ien knew, or the version we have today.

• The scholar Chang Shou-chieh mentioned an edition of Sun Tzu’s Art of War where the “13 chapters” made up the first section (chuan), and there were two other sections besides.

A Theory About the Extra Chapters

This has led to a theory: the 82 chapters might have included other writings by Sun Tzu, perhaps some that were not actually by him but were attributed to him later (these are called apocryphal writings).

• An example of such writings might be the Wen Ta, which were dialogues about military topics. Parts of these are found in other old texts.
• It’s suggested that Sun Tzu might have written the 13 chapters before he met King Ho Lu. Afterwards, he might have composed a detailed explanation in the form of questions and answers between himself and the King.

Pi I-hsun, author of a study on Sun Tzu, supports this idea. He quotes the Wu Yueh Ch’un Ch’iu: “The King of Wu called for Sun Tzu and asked him questions about the art of war. Each time Sun Tzu presented a chapter of his work, the King was incredibly impressed.”

• Pi I-hsun points out that if the entire work was explained in such detail, the total number of chapters would be very large.
• Many other books on military strategy were also attributed to Sun Tzu.
• The Han Shu only mentions the 82 chapters of Sun Tzu. Later book lists from the Sui and Tang dynasties mention other titles in addition to the “13 chapters.” Pi I-hsun believes this shows that all these other works were probably part of the original 82 chapters.

Likely Solution: A Collection Including Forgeries

This theory seems like a reasonable explanation. Between the time of Ssu-ma Ch’ien (around 100 B.C.) and Pan Ku (who wrote the Han Shu around 100 A.D.), many fake texts could have been created and attached to Sun Tzu’s famous name. The 82 chapters might have been a collection of these later writings combined with Sun Tzu’s original work. It’s also possible, but less likely, that some of these other texts existed when Ssu-ma Ch’ien was writing, and he chose to ignore them.

Other Ideas About the 82 Chapters

Another scholar, Tu Mu, suggested that Ts’ao Ts’ao had “strung together” Sun Wu’s Art of War, implying Ts’ao Ts’ao compiled it. This idea might come from a misunderstanding of the last words in Ts’ao Ts’ao’s preface. As Sun Hsing-yen pointed out, Ts’ao Ts’ao was probably just being modest, saying he wrote an explanatory commentary on Sun Tzu’s work. Tu Mu’s theory has not been widely accepted. The Ssu Ku Ch’uan Shu (a large catalog of books) states: “The mention of the 13 chapters in Ssu-ma Ch’ien’s Shih Chi shows they existed before the Han Shu. Later additions should not be considered part of the original work. Tu Mu’s claim is certainly not proof.”

Conclusion on the 13 Chapters

So, there is strong reason to believe that the 13 chapters of The Art of War existed in Ssu-ma Ch’ien’s time (around 100 B.C.) in much the same form as we have them today. Ssu-ma Ch’ien himself tells us the work was well known. He wrote: “Sun Tzu’s 13 Chapters and Wu Chi’s Art of War are the two books people commonly refer to on military matters. Both are widely available, so I will not discuss them here.”

Doubts About Sun Wu’s Existence: The Silence of the Tso Chuan**

However, when we try to look further back in history, serious problems appear. The most important fact is that the Tso Chuan, which is the greatest historical record from Sun Tzu’s supposed time, never mentions Sun Wu at all—neither as a general nor as a writer.

Because of this significant omission, many scholars doubt the stories about Sun Wu found in Ssu-ma Ch’ien’s Shih Chi. Some are even skeptical that Sun Wu ever existed.

Yeh Shui-hsin’s Skeptical View

Yeh Shui-hsin presents a strong case against Sun Wu’s historicity:

• Ssu-ma Ch’ien’s Account vs. Tso Chuan: Ssu-ma Ch’ien says Sun Wu was from Ch’i, worked for Wu, defeated Ch’u, entered its capital Ying, and was a great general under King Ho Lu. But Sun Wu does not appear anywhere in the Tso Chuan.
• Omission is Glaring: The Tso Chuan does mention less important people, even commoners and hired fighters. If it includes these minor figures, the omission of someone as famous and successful as Sun Wu is much more noticeable.
• Contemporaries Mentioned: The Tso Chuan gives details about Sun Wu’s supposed contemporaries, like Wu Yuan and Minister Pei. Is it believable that only Sun Wu would be left out?
• Literary Style: The writing style of The Art of War is similar to other philosophical and strategic texts like the Kuan Tzu, Liu Tao, and Yueh Yu. Yeh Shui-hsin suggests it might have been written by a private scholar living near the end of the “Spring and Autumn” period (771-476 B.C.) or the beginning of the “Warring States” period (475-221 B.C.).
• Application of Precepts: The story that the Wu State actually used Sun Tzu’s teachings is, in this view, just exaggerated claims made by his later followers.
• No Professional Generals Yet: From the height of the Chou dynasty down to the “Spring and Autumn” period, military commanders were also government officials. The idea of professional generals who only conducted military campaigns didn’t exist then. This practice only changed during the “Warring States” period.
• Sun Wu’s Status: Even though Wu was considered a less “civilized” state, would the Tso Chuan really fail to record Sun Wu if he were a great general, even if he didn’t hold a civil office? Yeh Shui-hsin finds this unlikely.
• Fabricated Stories: Therefore, stories about figures like Jang-chu and Sun Wu are seen not as real history, but as imaginative creations by scholars who liked to theorize. The story of King Ho Lu testing Sun Tzu with palace women is considered especially absurd and unbelievable.

A Note on Ssu-ma Ch’ien’s Account of Ying

The author of this introduction adds a point about Yeh Shui-hsin’s argument: Yeh Shui-hsin makes it sound like Ssu-ma Ch’ien directly stated that Sun Wu himself defeated Ch’u and entered Ying. While Ssu-ma Ch’ien’s account certainly gives that impression, it doesn’t explicitly say that Sun Tzu was the commanding general when Ying was taken, or even that he was there at all. We know that Wu Yuan and Po Pei were part of that military expedition, and its success was also largely due to the efforts of Fu Kai, King Ho Lu’s younger brother. This makes it harder to see how another general (Sun Tzu) could have played a leading role in the same campaign.

Chen Chen-sun’s View

Chen Chen-sun, a scholar from the Sung dynasty (960-1279 A.D.), noted: “Military writers consider Sun Wu the father of their art. But the fact that he does not appear in the Tso Chuan, even though he is said to have served under King Ho Lu of Wu, makes it uncertain what period he really belonged to.” He also said: “The works of Sun Wu and Wu Chi may be genuinely old.”

It’s interesting that both Yeh Shui-hsin and Chen Chen-sun, while questioning the historical accuracy of Sun Wu as a person described by Ssu-ma Ch’ien, are willing to accept the traditional date given for the book attributed to him. The author of the Hsu Lu (Pi I-hsun, mentioned earlier) criticized Chen Chen-sun, but he seems to have missed this distinction between doubting the person and accepting the age of the text.

However, Chen Chen-sun (the scholar mentioned earlier) makes a couple of points that do support the idea that Sun Tzu’s “13 chapters” are very old.

Arguments for the Ancient Origins of the 13 Chapters

1. Quoted by Later Writers Chen Chen-sun says that Sun Tzu must have lived around the time of King Ching of Chou (519-476 B.C.). This is because many later writers from the Chou, Ch’in, and Han dynasties seem to copy from his work.

• Two of the most obvious examples are Wu Chi and Huai-nan Tzu. Both were important historical figures.
• Wu Ch’i lived only about a century after Sun Tzu’s supposed time. He died in 381 B.C. According to Liu Hsiang, Wu Ch’i received the famous historical text Tso Chuan from Tseng Shen, who had been given it by its author.
• The fact that so many writers from different times quote The Art of War (whether they say so or not) strongly suggests that Sun Tzu’s book existed before all of them. In other words, his book was likely around towards the end of the 5th century B.C.

2. Old Language More proof of Sun Tzu’s age comes from the old-fashioned or completely outdated meanings of some words he uses. A list of these words is provided in the Hsu Lu (a study on Sun Tzu). Even if some of these word interpretations are debatable, the main point still stands: the language is ancient.

3. Style Belongs to the 5th Century B.C. Remember Yeh Shui-hsin? He was a top-level scholar and critic who strongly doubted that Sun Wu himself was a real person. Yet, he firmly stated that the writing style of the 13 chapters belongs to the early part of the 5th century B.C.

• Since Yeh Shui-hsin was trying to disprove Sun Wu’s existence, he would have gladly said the work was written later if he didn’t honestly believe it was older.
• The judgment of an educated Chinese scholar on a matter of literary style like this is very significant.

4. Internal Clues in the Text There is other evidence within the book itself:

• In Chapter XIII, section 1, there’s a clear reference to an old system of owning land. This system was already gone by the time of the philosopher Mencius (4th century B.C.), who wanted to bring back a version of it.
• The only kind of warfare Sun Tzu describes is between various feudal lords, where armored chariots were very important. The use of these chariots seems to have completely stopped before the end of the Chou dynasty (around 256 B.C.).
• Sun Tzu speaks like someone from the state of Wu. The state of Wu stopped existing as early as 473 B.C. (This point will be discussed more soon).

If we accept that the work was written in the 5th century B.C. or even earlier, the chances of it being a fake are much lower. The great era of creating fake historical texts didn’t start until much later. It’s especially unlikely that someone would fake this book in the period right after 473 B.C. People usually don’t rush to associate themselves with a cause that has just been defeated (like the state of Wu).

Was the Author Just a Scholar in an Office?

What about Yeh Shui-hsin’s theory that the author was a scholar who lived a secluded life and just theorized about war? That seems very unlikely.

• If one thing is clear after reading Sun Tzu’s advice, it’s that his wisdom comes from a lot of personal observation and actual experience.
• His words show the mind not only of a natural military planner with a rare talent for seeing broad principles, but also of a practical soldier who knew the military situation of his time very well.
• Besides the fact that China’s greatest military leaders throughout history have accepted and used his sayings, these sayings have a mix of freshness, honesty, sharp insight, and common sense. This completely rules out the idea that they were just made up in an office.

A Problem with Ssu-ma Ch’ien’s Story

So, if we agree that the 13 chapters are the real work of a military man living near the end of the “Spring and Autumn” period (771-476 B.C.), shouldn’t we accept Ssu-ma Ch’ien’s entire story about Sun Wu, despite the silence of the Tso Chuan? Ssu-ma Ch’ien was known as a careful historian. Shouldn’t we be hesitant to think that the records he used for Sun Wu’s life story were false?

Unfortunately, the answer seems to be no. There is still one major problem with the timeline in Ssu-ma Ch’ien’s story in the Shih Chi. As far as I know, no one has pointed this out before.

Sun Tzu refers to current events in two passages:

1. In Chapter VI, section 21: “Though I estimate that the soldiers of Yueh have more men than we do, that will not give them any advantage in achieving victory. I say then that victory can be achieved.”
2. In Chapter XI, section 30: “If asked whether an army can be made to act like the shuai-jan (a snake that responds instantly at both ends if struck in the middle), I would answer, Yes. For the men of Wu and the men of Yueh are enemies. Yet if they are crossing a river in the same boat and a storm hits, they will help each other just as the left hand helps the right.”

These two paragraphs are very valuable as clues to when the book was written. They place the work in the period when Wu and Yueh were fighting each other. Scholar Pi I-hsun has noted this.

However, what seems to have been missed is that these passages also make Ssu-ma Ch’ien’s story less believable.

• As we saw earlier, the first definite date Ssu-ma Ch’ien gives for Sun Wu is 512 B.C. At that point, Sun Wu is described as a general and a trusted advisor to King Ho Lu. This means his introduction to the king had already happened, and of course, the 13 chapters must have been written even before that.
• But in 512 B.C. and for several years after, until the capture of Ying (the Ch’u capital) in 506 B.C., the great, traditional enemy of Wu was the state of Ch’u, not Yueh.
• The states of Ch’u and Wu had been at war constantly for over fifty years. The first war between Wu and Yueh only happened in 510 B.C., and even that was just a short conflict in the middle of the intense struggle with Ch’u.
• The state of Chu is not mentioned at all in Sun Tzu’s 13 chapters.

The natural conclusion is that the chapters were written when Yueh had become the main enemy of Wu. This would be after Chu had been greatly defeated and humiliated in 506 B.C.

Timeline of Key Events

A table of dates might be helpful here:

• 514 B.C.: Ho Lu becomes King of Wu.
• 512 B.C.: Ho Lu attacks Ch’u. The Shih Chi mentions Sun Wu as a general who advises against entering Ying, Ch’u’s capital.
• 511 B.C.: Another attack on Chu.
• 510 B.C.: Wu successfully attacks Yueh. This is the first war between Wu and Yueh.
• 509 or 508 B.C.: Chu invades Wu but is badly defeated.
• 506 B.C.: Ho Lu attacks Ch’u with help from Tang and Tsai. This leads to the decisive battle of Po-chu and the capture of Ying. This is the last mention of Sun Wu in the Shih Chi.
• 505 B.C.: While Wu’s army is away, Yueh raids Wu. Wu is beaten by the state of Chin and has to leave Ying.
• 504 B.C.: Ho Lu sends his son Fu Chai to attack Ch’u.
• 497 B.C.: Kou Chien becomes King of Yueh.
• 496 B.C.: Wu attacks Yueh but is defeated by Kou Chien at Tsui-li. King Ho Lu is killed.
• 494 B.C.: Fu Chai (Ho Lu’s son and new King of Wu) defeats Kou Chien in a major battle and enters the capital of Yueh.
• 485 or 484 B.C.: Kou Chien officially submits to Wu. Wu Tzu-hsu (a key minister of Wu) dies.
• 482 B.C.: While Fu Chai is away, Kou Chien invades Wu.
• 478 to 476 B.C.: More attacks by Yueh on Wu.
• 475 B.C.: Kou Chien surrounds the capital of Wu.
• 473 B.C.: Wu is finally defeated and ceases to exist.

The sentence quoted earlier from Chapter VI (“Though I estimate that the soldiers of Yueh have more men than we do…”) doesn’t sound like something written during a time of great victory for Wu. It seems to suggest that, at that moment, things were going badly for Wu, and Yueh was winning. Therefore, we can conclude that Sun Tzu’s book was not written by 505 B.C. Before that date, Yueh doesn’t seem to have had any major successes against Wu.

King Ho Lu died in 496 B.C. So, if the book was written for him, it must have been during the period 505-496 B.C. This was a time when fighting had calmed down, probably because Wu was exhausted from its huge effort against Ch’u.

On the other hand, if we ignore the tradition linking Sun Wu’s name with King Ho Lu, the book could have been written between 496 and 494 B.C., or possibly in the period 482-473 B.C., when Yueh was once again becoming a very serious threat.

Sun Wu’s Likely Status and the Origin of His Legend

We can be fairly sure that the author, whoever he was, was not a very famous or important person in his own time. Regarding this point, the silence of the Tso Chuan is much more convincing than any small bit of authority still attached to Ssu-ma Ch’ien’s Shih Chi, especially if its other facts are questioned.

Sun Hsing-yen (a later scholar) tried to explain why Sun Wu’s name was missing from the Tso Chuan. He said that Wu Tzu-hsu (the minister) got all the credit for Sun Wu’s achievements because Sun Wu, being from another state, was not given an official position in Wu.

So, how did the legend of Sun Tzu begin?

• It might be that as his book became more famous, its author gradually gained a kind of artificial fame. People felt it was only right that someone so knowledgeable about war should also have major achievements to his name.
• The capture of Ying was certainly the greatest military victory in King Ho Lu’s reign. It deeply impressed all the nearby states and briefly made Wu very powerful.
• So, as time went on, it was natural for Sun Wu, the acknowledged master of strategy, to become popularly linked with that campaign. At first, perhaps people thought his brain planned it. Later, the story might have grown so that he was seen as actually carrying out the campaign with Wu Yuan, Po Pei, and Fu Kai.

A Conjectured Life of Sun Wu

Any attempt to reconstruct Sun Tzu’s life must be based almost entirely on guesswork. Keeping this in mind, here’s a possible scenario:

• He probably started working for the state of Wu around the time Ho Lu became king.
• He gained experience as a lower-ranking officer during the intense military activity of the first half of Ho Lu’s reign.
• If he did become a general, he was certainly never as important as the other three main generals (Wu Yuan, Po Pei, Fu Kai).
• He was probably present at the siege and occupation of Ying. He also likely witnessed Wu’s sudden collapse the following year.
• Yueh’s attack at this critical time, when Wu was struggling on all sides, seems to have convinced him that this rising kingdom of Yueh was the great enemy against whom all efforts would now have to be aimed.
• So, Sun Wu was an experienced warrior when he wrote his famous book. Based on this reasoning, the book probably appeared towards the end, rather than the beginning, of Ho Lu’s reign.
• The story about training the palace women might have grown out of a real incident that happened around the same time.

Since we don’t hear any more about Sun Wu after this from any source, he probably didn’t live longer than King Ho Lu. He also likely didn’t take part in the final, desperate struggle with Yueh, which began with Wu’s defeat at Tsui-li.

If these ideas are roughly correct, there’s a certain irony: China’s most famous thinker on peace (likely Confucius) lived at the same time as its greatest writer on war.

The Text of Sun Tzu

It’s hard to find much information about the history of Sun Tzu’s actual text. Quotations found in early authors show that the “13 chapters” Ssu-ma Ch’ien mentioned were essentially the same as the ones we have today. Ssu-ma Ch’ien himself said they were widely read in his time. We can only regret that he didn’t discuss them further because they were so common.

Sun Hsing-yen, in his preface to a later edition, wrote: “During the Ch’in and Han dynasties (221 B.C. - A.D. 220), military commanders generally used Sun Tzu’s Art of War. But they seem to have treated it as a mysterious work and were unwilling to explain it for future generations. So, Wei Wu (Ts’ao Tsao) was the first to write a commentary on it.”

As we’ve already seen, there’s no good reason to think that Ts’ao Ts’ao changed the original text. But the text itself is often very unclear. Also, so many different editions appeared after Ts’ao Ts’ao’s time, especially during the T`ang (A.D. 618-907) and Sung (A.D. 960-1279) dynasties, that it would be surprising if many errors hadn’t crept in.

Key Editions and Discoveries

• **Chi Tien-pao's Edition (Mid-Sung Dynasty):** Around the middle of the Sung period, when all the main commentaries on Sun Tzu were already written, a scholar named Chi Tien-pao published a work in 15 sections called “Sun Tzu with the collected commentaries of ten writers.”
• Chu Fu’s Variant Readings (Sung Dynasty): There was another text with different readings by Chu Fu, which also had support from scholars at that time. However, Sun Hsing-yen tells us that in the Ming dynasty (1368-1644) editions, these different readings were no longer being circulated.
• The Common Text (Until Late 18th Century): So, until the end of the 18th century, the only widely available text was one based on Chi Tien-pao's edition, even though no actual copy of Chi Tien-pao’s important work was known to exist anymore. This is the version of Sun Tzu that appears in the war section of the great imperial encyclopedia printed in 1726, the Ku Chin Tu Shu Chi Cheng. Another similar version is found in a collection called “Eleven philosophers of the Chou and Chin dynasties” (1758). The Chinese text used in Captain Calthrop’s first English edition was also likely a similar version that came through Japanese sources.
• Sun Hsing-yen’s Discovery (Late 18th/Early 19th Century): Things stayed this way until Sun Hsing-yen (1752-1818), a respected expert on ancient items and classics (who claimed to be a descendant of Sun Wu), accidentally discovered a copy of Chi Tien-pao’s long-lost work. He found it while visiting the library of the Hua-yin temple. Attached to it was the I Shuo of Cheng Yu-Hsien, another work mentioned in old records and also thought to have been lost.
• The “Original Edition” (Not Pristine): Sun Hsing-yen called Chi Tien-pao's version the "original edition" or "original text." This name is a bit misleading because it definitely doesn't present Sun Tzu's text in its pure, original form. Chi Tien-pao was a careless compiler. He seems to have just reproduced the somewhat corrupted version common in his day, without bothering to compare it with the earliest editions available at that time.
• Even Older Versions: Fortunately, two versions of Sun Tzu, even older than Chi Tien-pao’s rediscovered work, still existed.
  • One was found within the Tung Tien, Tu Yu’s great book on government (from the middle of the Tang dynasty, around A.D. 800).
  • The other was similarly preserved in the Tai Ping Yu Lan encyclopedia (compiled around A.D. 983). In both these sources, the complete text of Sun Tzu can be found, although it’s broken into pieces, mixed with other material, and spread across many different sections. Considering the Tai Ping Yu Lan takes us back to 983 A.D., and the Tung Tien about 200 years even earlier, these early copies of Sun Tzu are extremely valuable.
• Sun Hsing-yen’s Revision (The “Standard Text”): Yet, no one seems to have thought of using these older versions until Sun Hsing-yen. Acting under government orders, he undertook a complete revision of the text. He wrote: “Because of the many mistakes in the text of Sun Tzu that his editors had passed down, the government ordered that the ancient edition [Chi Tien-pao’s] should be used, and that the text should be revised and corrected throughout. It happened that Wu Nien-hu, the Governor Pi Kua, and Hsi, a scholar, had all studied this topic, probably better than I have. So, I have had the whole work carved on wooden blocks as a textbook for military men.” The three people mentioned here had clearly worked on Sun Tzu’s text before Sun Hsing-yen was commissioned. However, it’s unclear exactly what they accomplished. In any case, the new edition, when it was finally produced, appeared under the names of Sun Hsing-yen and only one co-editor, Wu Jen-shi. They used Chi Tien-pao’s “original edition” as their starting point. By carefully comparing it with older versions (like those in the Tung Tien and Tai Ping Yu Lan), as well as existing commentaries and other sources like Cheng Yu-Hsien’s I Shuo, they managed to fix a very large number of questionable passages. On the whole, they produced what must be accepted as the closest version we are ever likely to get to Sun Tzu’s original work. This is what will be called the “standard text” from now on.

The copy of this standard text used by the author of this introduction was a reprint from 1877. It’s part of a well-printed set of early philosophical works.

• It begins with a preface by Sun Hsing-yen, which supports the traditional view of Sun Tzu’s life and accomplishments and concisely summarizes the evidence for it.
• This is followed by Ts’ao Ts’ao’s preface to his edition, and the biography of Sun Tzu from the Shih Chi (both of which were translated earlier in this introduction).
• Then comes Cheng Yu-hsien’s I Shuo, with its author’s preface.
• Next is a short collection of historical and bibliographical information called Sun Tzu Hsu Lu, put together by Pi I-hsun.
• In the main body of the work, each sentence of Sun Tzu’s text is followed by a note on the text itself (if needed), and then the various commentaries related to it, arranged in the order they were written. These commentaries will now be discussed briefly.

The Commentators

Sun Tzu’s work can boast an exceptionally long and distinguished list of commentators. This would be an honor for any classic text. The scholar Ou-yang Hsiu noted this, even though he wrote before the list was complete. He cleverly explained it by saying that since the tricks and strategies of war are endless, they can naturally be discussed in many different ways.

1. Ts’ao Ts’ao (also known as Tsao Kung, later Wei Wu Ti; A.D. 155-220) There is almost no doubt that the earliest commentary on Sun Tzu was written by this extraordinary man. His life story in the San Kuo Chih (Records of the Three Kingdoms) reads like an exciting novel. He was one of the greatest military geniuses the world has ever seen. The scale of his military operations was comparable to Napoleon’s. He was especially famous for his incredibly fast marches, which led to the saying, “Talk of Ts’ao Ts’ao, and Ts’ao Ts’ao will appear.”

The scholar Ou-yang Hsiu said that Ts’ao Ts’ao was a great military leader. He “fought against powerful rivals like Tung Cho, Lu Pu, and the two Yuans (father and son), and defeated them all. After these victories, he divided the Han Empire with the states of Wu and Shu, and made himself king. It’s said that whenever Wei (Ts’ao Ts’ao’s state) was about to start a major military campaign, Ts’ao Ts’ao held a war council and had all his plans ready. Generals who used his plans rarely lost a battle. Those who went against his plans in any way saw their armies quickly beaten and forced to flee.”

Ts’ao Ts’ao’s notes on Sun Tzu are very short and to the point. They perfectly match the image of the stern commander known from history. It’s hard to imagine that these notes were written by someone who was just a scholar and not an experienced military leader. Sometimes, because his notes are so condensed, they are difficult to understand. They can be as much in need of explanation as Sun Tzu’s original text itself!

2. Meng Shih The commentary known by this name is quite limited, and we don’t know much about the author. Even his personal name isn’t recorded.

• Chi Tien-pao’s edition of Sun Tzu places Meng Shih after another commentator named Chia Lin.
• Chao Kung-wu (a bibliographer) also said Meng Shih lived during the Tang dynasty (A.D. 618-907), but this is incorrect.
• In Sun Hsing-yen’s preface, he is listed as Meng Shih of the Liang dynasty (A.D. 502-557).
• Others think he might be Meng Kang from the 3rd century A.D.
• One work names him as the last of the “Five Commentators,” with the others being Wei Wu Ti (Ts’ao Ts’ao), Tu Mu, Chen Hao, and Chia Lin.

3. Li Chuan (8th century A.D.) Li Ch’uan was a well-known writer on military tactics during the Tang dynasty. One of his works on tactics has been used continuously up to the present day. Old book catalogs mention that he wrote “Lives of famous generals from the Chou to the Tang dynasty.” According to some sources, Li Chuan used a version of Sun Tzu’s text that was quite different from the ones we have now. His notes are mostly short and direct. He often uses stories from Chinese history to explain his points.

4. Tu Yu (died A.D. 812) Tu Yu did not write a separate commentary on Sun Tzu. His notes are taken from his life’s work, the Tung Tien, a large encyclopedia about the government and constitution.

• His notes often repeat what Ts’ao Ts’ao and Meng Shih wrote.
• It’s also believed that he used older commentaries by Wang Ling and others.
• Because of the way the Tung Tien is organized, Tu Yu had to explain each passage individually, without its surrounding context. Sometimes his own explanation doesn’t match Ts’ao Tsao’s, whom he always quotes first.
• Although he wasn’t originally considered one of the “Ten Commentators,” Chi Tien-pao added him to the list, incorrectly placing him after his grandson, Tu Mu.

5. Tu Mu (A.D. 803-852) Tu Mu is perhaps best known as a poet—a shining star even among the many great poets of the Tang period.

• We learn from Chao Kung-wu that even though Tu Mu had no practical experience in war, he loved discussing it. He was also very knowledgeable about military history from the “Spring and Autumn” and “Warring States” periods.
• Therefore, his notes are worth paying attention to. They are very detailed and full of historical examples.
• Tu Mu summarized Sun Tzu’s work like this: “Practice kindness and justice, but also make full use of clever tricks and practical measures.”
• He also declared that all the military victories and defeats of the thousand years since Sun Tzu’s death would, if examined, confirm every one of the principles in Sun Tzu’s book.
• Tu Mu’s somewhat mean-spirited accusation against Ts’ao Ts’ao has already been discussed.

6. Chen Hao (around the same time as Tu Mu) Chen Hao seems to have lived around the same time as Tu Mu, during the Tang dynasty. Chao Kung-wu says that Chen Hao decided to write a new commentary on Sun Tzu for two reasons:

• Ts’ao Ts’ao’s commentary was too unclear and subtle.
• Tu Mu’s commentary was too long and wordy. Ou-yang Hsiu, writing in the mid-11th century, called Ts’ao Ts’ao, Tu Mu, and Chen Hao the three main commentators on Sun Tzu. He also noted that Chen Hao constantly criticized Tu Mu’s weaknesses. Chen Hao’s commentary is good, but it’s generally considered less important than those of Ts’ao Tsao and Tu Mu.

7. Chia Lin (Tang Dynasty) Chia Lin is known to have lived during the Tang dynasty. His commentary on Sun Tzu is mentioned in the official history of the Tang dynasty. It was later republished by Chi Hsieh (also of the Tang dynasty) along with the commentaries of Meng Shih and Tu Yu. Chia Lin’s commentary is quite brief and perhaps the least valuable of the eleven major commentaries in terms of quality.

8. Mei Yao-chen (A.D. 1002-1060) Mei Yao-chen, often known by his “style” name Mei Sheng-yu, was also a respected poet, like Tu Mu. His commentary was published with a praising preface by the great scholar Ou-yang Hsiu. Here’s some of what Ou-yang Hsiu wrote:

“Later scholars have misunderstood Sun Tzu. They have twisted his words and tried to make them fit their own biased views. So, although there have been many commentators, only a few have been truly good. My friend Sheng-yu (Mei Yao-chen) has not made this mistake. In trying to provide a critical commentary for Sun Tzu’s work, he remembers that these sayings were for states fighting internal wars. He understands that Sun Tzu was not talking about military situations under the ancient emperors of the earliest dynasties, nor about specific punishments prescribed to the Minister of War.

Sun Wu (Sun Tzu) loved to write briefly, but his meaning is always deep. Whether he’s talking about marching an army, managing soldiers, assessing the enemy, or controlling the factors that lead to victory, he always discusses it systematically. His sayings are linked in a strict logical order. However, this has been hidden by commentators who probably failed to understand their meaning. In his own commentary, Mei Sheng-yu has ignored all the stubborn prejudices of these critics. He has tried to bring out the true meaning of Sun Tzu himself. By doing this, the clouds of confusion have been cleared away, and the sayings have become clear. I am convinced that this work deserves to be passed down alongside the three great commentaries (by Ts’ao Ts’ao, Tu Mu, and Chen Hao). Future generations will have constant reason to thank my friend Sheng-yu for much of what they find in these sayings.”

Allowing for some exaggeration due to friendship, this author (Lionel Giles, the original writer of this introduction) tends to agree with this positive judgment. He would certainly place Mei Yao-chen above Chen Hao in terms of quality.

9. Wang Hsi (Sung Dynasty) Wang Hsi, also from the Sung dynasty, is definitely original in some of his interpretations. However, he is much less sensible than Mei Yao-chen. Overall, he is not a very reliable guide. He likes to compare his own commentary with Ts’ao Ts’ao’s, but the comparison doesn’t often make him look good. We learn from Chao Kung-wu that Wang Hsi revised the ancient text of Sun Tzu, filling in gaps and correcting mistakes.

10. Ho Yen-Hsi (Sung Dynasty) The personal name of this commentator is given as Ho Yen-Hsi by Cheng Ch’iao in the Tung Chih (a historical text written around the mid-12th century). However, he appears simply as Ho Shih in another work, the Yu Hai. Ma Tuan-lin (a historian) quotes Chao Kung-wu as saying that Ho Yen-Hsi’s personal name is unknown.

• There seems to be no reason to doubt Cheng Ch’iao’s statement. Otherwise, one might guess he was Ho Ch’u-fei, who wrote a short book on war and lived in the late 11th century.
• Ho Shih’s commentary, according to the Tien-I-Ko library catalog, “contains helpful additions” here and there. But it is mostly notable for the many extracts it includes from historical records and other sources, presented in an adapted form.

11. Chang Yu (Sung Dynasty) The list of major commentators ends with Chang Yu. He may not have been highly original, but he had an admirable ability to explain things clearly.

• His commentary is based on Ts’ao Ts’ao’s. He manages to expand and develop Ts’ao Ts’ao’s brief sentences in a masterful way.
• It’s safe to say that without Chang Yu, much of Ts’ao Ts’ao’s commentary would have remained hidden in its original obscurity and therefore would have been useless.
• His work isn’t mentioned in several major Sung dynasty historical records, but it is included in the Tung Chih, which also names him as the author of “Lives of Famous Generals.”

It’s quite remarkable that the last four commentators mentioned (Mei Yao-chen, Wang Hsi, Ho Yen-Hsi, and Chang Yu) all lived and worked within such a short period during the Sung dynasty. Chao Kung-wu explains this: “During the early years of the Sung dynasty, the Empire had a long period of peace, and people stopped practicing the art of war. But when [Chao] Yuan-hao’s rebellion happened (1038-1042 A.D.) and the generals on the frontier were defeated repeatedly, the Court urgently searched for men skilled in war. Military topics then became popular among all the high officials. That’s why the commentators of Sun Tzu in our dynasty mostly belong to that period.”

Lost Commentaries

Besides these eleven commentators, there are several others whose works have not survived.

• The Sui Shu (History of the Sui Dynasty) mentions four: Wang Ling (often quoted by Tu Yu as Wang Tzu), Chang Tzu-shang, Chia Hsu of Wei, and Shen Yu of Wu.
• The Tang Shu (History of the Tang Dynasty) adds Sun Hao.
• The Tung Chih adds Hsiao Chi.
• The Tu Shu (an encyclopedia) mentions a Ming dynasty commentator, Huang Jun-yu.

It’s possible that some of these individuals were merely collectors and editors of other commentaries, like Chi Tien-pao and Chi Hsieh, who were mentioned earlier.

Appreciations of Sun Tzu

Sun Tzu’s writings have powerfully fascinated some of China’s greatest historical figures.

Famous Generals Who Studied Sun Tzu: Among the famous generals known to have enthusiastically studied his work are:

• Han Hsin (died 196 B.C.)
• Feng I (died A.D. 34)
• Lu Meng (died A.D. 219)
• Yo Fei (A.D. 1103-1141)

The opinion of Ts’ao Ts’ao, who is considered one of China’s greatest military figures (perhaps alongside Han Hsin), has already been mentioned.

Praise from Literary Men: Even more remarkable, in some ways, is the praise from purely literary men. For example, Su Hsun (the father of the famous poet Su Tung-po) wrote several essays on military topics. These essays were chiefly inspired by Sun Tzu. The following short passage by Su Hsun is preserved in the Yu Hai (a historical encyclopedia):

“Sun Wu’s (Sun Tzu’s) saying, that in war one cannot be certain of winning, is very different indeed from what other books tell us. Wu Ch’i was a man similar to Sun Wu: they both wrote books on war, and people often refer to them together as ‘Sun and Wu.’ But Wu Ch’i’s comments on war are less significant, his rules are rougher and more crudely explained, and his work lacks the same unified plan as Sun Tzu’s. In Sun Tzu’s work, the style is brief, but the meaning is fully expressed.”

Cheng Hou’s “Impartial Judgments”: The following is an excerpt from “Impartial Judgments in the Garden of Literature” by Cheng Hou:

“Sun Tzu’s 13 chapters are not only the foundation of all military training but also demand the most careful attention from scholars and writers. His sayings are brief yet elegant, simple yet deep, clear, and highly practical. Works like the Lun Yu (Analects of Confucius), the I Ching (Book of Changes), and the great Tso Chuan commentary, as well as the writings of Mencius, Hsun Kuang, and Yang Chu, all fall below the level of Sun Tzu.”

Chu Hsi’s Reaction: The famous philosopher Chu Hsi, commenting on Cheng Hou’s statement, fully agreed with the first part of the praise for Sun Tzu. However, he disliked the bold comparison of Sun Tzu with the highly respected classical works. Chu Hsi said that language of this sort “encourages a ruler’s tendency towards relentless warfare and reckless militarism.”

Apologies for War

We are used to thinking of China as the most peace-loving nation on Earth. Because of this, we might forget that its experience with war in all its forms is something no modern country can match.

• Extensive Military History: China’s long military history goes back so far that its origins are lost in time. It had built the Great Wall and was maintaining a huge permanent army along its border centuries before the first Roman soldier was seen on the Danube River.
• Constant Conflict: With endless clashes between ancient feudal states, grim conflicts with invaders like the Huns and Turks after the government was centralized, terrible upheavals when dynasties were overthrown, and countless rebellions and smaller disturbances, it’s hardly an exaggeration to say that the sound of weapons has almost never stopped in some part of the Empire.
• Illustrious Captains: No less remarkable is the series of brilliant military leaders China can proudly point to. As in all countries, the greatest ones tend to appear during the most critical moments in its history.
  • Po Ch’i stands out when the state of Ch’in was beginning its final struggle with the other independent states.
  • The turbulent years after the Chin dynasty broke up are lit up by the extraordinary genius of Han Hsin.
  • When the Han dynasty, in turn, was collapsing, the great and menacing figure of Ts’ao Ts’ao dominated the scene.
  • In the establishment of the Tang dynasty, one of the mightiest achievements by humans, the superhuman energy of Li Shih-min (later Emperor Tai Tsung) was supported by the brilliant strategy of Li Ching. None of these generals need to fear comparison with the greatest names in European military history.

The Prevailing Pacifist Sentiment: Despite all this, the great majority of Chinese thought, from the philosopher Lao Tzu onwards, and especially as seen in the standard literature of Confucianism, has consistently been peaceful and strongly opposed to militarism in any form. It is very unusual to find any scholars defending warfare on principle. Because of this, I (Lionel Giles) have thought it worthwhile to collect and translate a few passages where this unconventional view is presented.

Ssu-ma Ch’ien’s Defense of Military Action: The following passage by the historian Ssu-ma Ch’ien shows that even though he greatly admired Confucius, he did not support peace at any cost:

“Military weapons are the tools used by the Sage (wise ruler) to punish violence and cruelty, to bring peace to troubled times, to remove difficulties and dangers, and to help those who are in peril. Every animal with blood in its veins and horns on its head will fight when it is attacked. How much more so will humans, who carry in their hearts the ability to love and hate, feel joy and anger! When a person is pleased, a feeling of affection arises. When angry, their ‘poisoned sting’ (capacity for harm) comes out. That is the natural law that governs their being…

What then should be said of those scholars of our time? They are blind to all great issues and have no understanding of relative importance. They can only repeat their stale phrases about ‘virtue’ and ‘civilization,’ condemning the use of military weapons. They will surely lead our country to powerlessness and dishonor, and to the loss of its rightful heritage. Or, at the very least, they will cause invasion and rebellion, the sacrifice of territory, and general weakness. Yet, they stubbornly refuse to change their position. The truth is that, just as a teacher in a family must not spare the rod (use physical discipline), and punishments cannot be avoided in the State, so military punishment can never be allowed to disappear in the Empire. All one can say is that this power will be used wisely by some, and foolishly by others. And among those who carry weapons, some will be loyal and others rebellious.”

Tu Mu’s View on War as Punishment: The next piece is from Tu Mu’s preface to his commentary on Sun Tzu:

“War may be defined as punishment, which is one of the functions of government. It was the profession of Chung Yu and Jan Chiu, both disciples of Confucius. Nowadays, holding trials, hearing legal cases, imprisoning offenders, and executing them by flogging in the marketplace are all done by officials. But leading huge armies, tearing down fortified cities, taking women and children captive, and beheading traitors—this is also work done by officials. The purposes of torture devices and military weapons are essentially the same. There is no fundamental difference between the punishment of flogging and cutting off heads in war. For smaller violations of law, which are easily dealt with, only a small amount of force is needed. For greater violations, more force is needed: hence the use of military weapons and large-scale executions. In both cases, however, the goal is to get rid of wicked people and to give comfort and relief to the good…

Chi-sun (a noble) asked Jan Yu (a disciple of Confucius), saying: ‘Sir, did you gain your military skill by study, or were you born with it?’ Jan Yu replied: ‘It has been acquired by study.’ Chi-sun said, ‘How can that be, since you are a disciple of Confucius?’ Jan Yu replied: ‘It is true; I was taught by Confucius. It is appropriate for the great Sage to exercise both civil (peaceful government) and military functions, though to be sure, my instruction in the art of fighting has not yet gone very far.’

Now, who was the author of this rigid distinction between ‘civil’ and ‘military’ roles, and the limitation of each to a separate area of action? Or in what year of which dynasty was it first introduced? That is more than I can say. But, in any case, it has come about that the members of the governing class are quite afraid of discussing military topics, or they do so only in a hesitant, shamefaced way. If any are bold enough to discuss the subject, they are immediately labeled as eccentric individuals with coarse and brutal tendencies. This is an extraordinary example of how, simply through lack of reasoning, people unfortunately lose sight of fundamental principles.

When the Duke of Chou was minister under King Cheng, he regulated ceremonies and created music, and he respected the arts of scholarship and learning. Yet when the barbarians of the River Huai revolted, he went out and punished them.”

When Confucius held an official position under the Duke of Lu, a meeting was arranged at a place called Chia-ku. Confucius said, “If peaceful talks are happening, you should have made warlike preparations beforehand.” At that meeting, he shamed the Marquis of Chi, who was intimidated by him and dared not resort to violence. How can it be said that these two great Sages (the Duke of Chou and Confucius) knew nothing about military matters?

We have seen that the great scholar Chu Hsi highly respected Sun Tzu. He also referred to the authority of the Classics (ancient respected texts):

“Our Master Confucius, when answering Duke Ling of Wei, said: ‘I have never studied matters connected with armies and battalions.’ When replying to Kung Wen-tzu, he said: ‘I have not been taught about armor and weapons.’ But if we look at the meeting at Chia-ku, we find that he used armed force against the men of Lai, so that the Marquis of Ch’i was frightened. Again, when the people of Pi revolted, he ordered his officers to attack them. They were defeated and fled in confusion. He once said the words: ‘If I fight, I conquer.’ And Jan Yu also said: ‘The Sage uses both civil (peaceful government) and military functions.’

Can it really be true that Confucius never studied or received instruction in the art of war? We can only say that he did not specifically choose subjects connected with armies and fighting to be the main focus of his teaching.”

Sun Hsing-yen, the editor of Sun Tzu, writes in a similar way:

“Confucius said: ‘I am inexperienced in military matters.’ He also said: ‘If I fight, I conquer.’ Confucius ordered ceremonies and regulated music. Now, war is one of the five types of State ceremonial events. It must not be treated as a separate branch of study. Therefore, the words ‘I am inexperienced in’ must be understood to mean that there are things that even an inspired Teacher does not know.

Those who have to lead an army and create strategies must learn the art of war. But if one can use the services of a good general like Sun Tzu (who was employed by Wu Tzu-hsu), there is no need to learn it oneself. That’s why Confucius added the remark: ‘If I fight, I conquer.’

However, people today deliberately interpret these words of Confucius in their narrowest sense. They think he meant that books on the art of war were not worth reading. With blind persistence, they bring up the example of Chao Kua. Chao Kua studied his father’s books on war but to no good end (he suffered a great defeat). They use this as proof that all military theory is useless.

Also, seeing that books on war deal with things like finding the right opportunity when making plans, and using spies, these people believe that the art of war is immoral and unworthy of a sage. These people ignore the fact that the studies of our scholars and the civil government work of our officials also require steady effort and practice before one becomes good at them. The ancients were particularly careful about allowing mere beginners to mess up their work.

Weapons are harmful, and fighting is dangerous. Unless a general is in constant practice, he should not risk other people’s lives in battle. Therefore, it is essential that Sun Tzu’s 13 chapters should be studied.

Hsiang Liang used to teach his nephew Chi (later known as Hsiang Yu) the art of war. Chi got a general idea of the art but would not continue his studies to their proper conclusion. As a result, he was finally defeated and overthrown. He did not realize that the tricks and strategies of war are too numerous to be fully described in words.

Duke Hsiang of Sung and King Yen of Hsu were brought to ruin by their inappropriate kindness or humanity in war. The treacherous and sneaky nature of war requires the use of deception and strategies suited to the situation. There is a recorded case of Confucius himself violating an oath that was forced upon him. There’s also a case of him leaving the Sung State in disguise. Can we then recklessly criticize Sun Tzu for disregarding truth and honesty in the context of war?”

Bibliography

Here are some of the oldest Chinese books on war written after Sun Tzu. The notes on each are mainly taken from a historical catalog called the Ssu Ku Ch’uan Shu Chien Ming Mu Lu.

1. Wu Tzu

   • In 1 section or 6 chapters.
   • By Wu Chi (died 381 B.C.).
   • This is a genuine work.

2. Ssu-ma Fa

   • In 1 section or 5 chapters.
   • It’s wrongly said to be by Ssu-ma Jang-chu from the 6th century B.C.
   • However, its date must be early because customs of the three ancient dynasties (Hsia, Shang, Chou) are often mentioned in it.
   • The Ssu Ku Ch’uan Shu (a major book catalog) notes that the three oldest books on war—Sun Tzu, Wu Tzu, and Ssu-ma Fa—are generally only concerned with strictly military things. These include: how to create, gather, train, and drill troops; and the correct theories about practical measures, making plans, transporting goods, and handling soldiers. This is very different from later works, where the science of war is usually mixed with philosophy, fortune-telling, and magic.

3. Liu Tao

   • In 6 sections or 60 chapters.
   • Attributed to Lu Wang (also known as Tai Kung) from the 12th century B.C.
   • But its writing style does not belong to the era of the Three Dynasties.
   • Lu Te-ming (A.D. 550-625) mentions the work and lists the headings of its six sections. This means the forgery cannot have been created later than the Sui dynasty (A.D. 581-618).

4. Wei Liao Tzu

   • In 5 sections.
   • Attributed to Wei Liao (4th century B.C.), who studied under the famous Kuei-ku Tzu.
   • The work seems to have originally been in 31 chapters, but the version we have today only has 24.
   • Its content is mostly sound, though its strategies are quite different from those of the Warring States period (475-221 B.C.).
   • The well-known Sung dynasty philosopher Chang Tsai wrote a commentary on it.

5. San Lueh (Three Strategies)

   • In 3 sections.
   • Attributed to Huang-shih Kung, a legendary figure said to have given it to Chang Liang (died 187 B.C.) during a meeting on a bridge.
   • But again, the writing style is not that of works from the Chin (221-206 B.C.) or Han (206 B.C. - A.D. 220) periods.
   • The Han Emperor Kuang Wu (A.D. 25-57) apparently quotes from it in one of his announcements. However, the passage in question might have been inserted later to try to prove the work was genuine.
   • We would probably be correct to date it to the Northern Sung period (A.D. 420-478), or a bit earlier.

6. Li Wei Kung Wen Tui (Dialogues between Tai Tsung and Li Wei Kung)

   • In 3 sections.
   • Written as a dialogue between Emperor Tai Tsung and his great general Li Ching (also known as Li Wei Kung). It is usually said to be written by Li Ching.
   • Knowledgeable authorities consider it a forgery, although the author was clearly skilled in the art of war.

7. Li Ching Ping Fa (Li Ching’s Art of War)

   • Not to be confused with the previous work.
   • This is a short book in 8 chapters, preserved in the Tung Tien (an encyclopedia) but not published separately. This explains why it’s not in the Ssu Ku Chuan Shu.

8. Wu Chi Ching

   • In 1 section.
   • Attributed to the legendary minister Feng Hou, with explanatory notes by Kung-sun Hung of the Han dynasty (died 121 B.C.).
   • It was supposedly praised by the famous general Ma Lung (died A.D. 300).
   • Yet, the earliest mention of it is in the Sung Chih (History of the Sung Dynasty).
   • Although it’s a forgery, the work is well put together.

Given how highly regarded Chu-ko Liang (a famous strategist) has always been, it’s not surprising to find more than one work on war attributed to him. These include:

• (1) The Shih Liu Tse (Sixteen Strategies), preserved in a large collection called the Yung Lo Ta Tien.
• (2) Chiang Yuan (The Source of Generalship).
• (3) Hsin Shu (New Book), which extensively copies from Sun Tzu. None of these have any claim to be genuine works by Chu-ko Liang.

Most of the large Chinese encyclopedias have extensive sections dedicated to the literature of war. The following references might be useful for further research (listing the approximate date or period for historical context):

• Tung Tien (around A.D. 800), chapters 148-162.
• Tai Ping Yu Lan (A.D. 983), chapters 270-359.
• Wen Hsien Tung Kao (13th century), chapter 221.
• Yu Hai (13th century), chapters 140, 141.
• San Tsai Tu Hui (16th century).
• Kuang Po Wu Chih (1607), chapters 31, 32.
• Ch’ien Chio Lei Shu (1632), chapter 75.
• Yuan Chien Lei Han (1710), chapters 206-229.
• Ku Chin Tu Shu Chi Cheng (1726), section XXX, especially chapters 81-90.
• Hsu Wen Hsien Tung Kao (1784), chapters 121-134.
• Huang Chao Ching Shih Wen Pien (1826), chapters 76, 77.

The bibliography sections of certain historical works also deserve mention:

• Ch’ien Han Shu (History of the Former Han Dynasty), chapter 30.
• Sui Shu (History of the Sui Dynasty), chapters 32-35.
• Chiu Tang Shu (Old History of the Tang Dynasty), chapters 46, 47.
• Hsin Tang Shu (New History of the Tang Dynasty), chapters 57, 60.
• Sung Shih (History of the Sung Dynasty), chapters 202-209.
• Tung Chih (Comprehensive History, around A.D. 1150), chapter 68.

To these, of course, must be added the great Catalogue of the Imperial Library:

• Ssu Ku Ch’uan Shu Tsung Mu Ti Yao (Annotated General Catalog of the Complete Library of the Four Treasuries, 1790), chapters 99, 100.

I. LAYING PLANS

Sun Tzu said:

The Importance of War

The art of war is very important to the country. It can mean life or death for the nation. It can lead to safety or to ruin. So, we must study it very carefully. We cannot ignore it.

The Five Key Factors in War

The art of war is guided by five basic factors. You must think about these factors carefully when you plan and try to understand the situation on the battlefield.

These five important things are:

1. Moral Strength: This makes the people completely agree with their ruler. Because of this, they will follow him no matter what, even if it means risking their lives. They will not be afraid of any danger.
2. Heaven: This means conditions like night and day, cold and heat, and the different times and seasons.
3. Earth: This includes:
   • Distances, whether they are great or small.
   • Danger and safety of the terrain.
   • Open ground and narrow paths.
   • The chances of survival or death connected to the landscape.
4. The Commander: A commander must show the qualities of:
   • Wisdom
   • Sincerity (being trustworthy and honest)
   • Benevolence (kindness and goodwill)
   • Courage
   • Strictness
5. Method and Discipline: This means:
   • Organizing the army correctly with its different units and subdivisions.
   • The system of ranks for officers.
   • Keeping the roads open so supplies can reach the army.
   • Controlling military spending.

Every general should know these five factors well. The general who understands them will win. The general who does not understand them will lose.

Comparing Sides to Predict Outcomes

So, when you are planning and trying to figure out the military situation, use these factors to compare the two sides:

1. Which of the two rulers has greater Moral Strength and the support of their people?
2. Which of the two generals is more capable?
3. Who has the advantages of Heaven (timing and weather) and Earth (terrain)?
4. On which side is discipline enforced more strictly?
5. Which army is stronger, both in spirit and in numbers?
6. On which side are the officers and soldiers better trained?
7. In which army is there more certainty that good work will be rewarded and bad behavior will be punished?

By looking at these seven points, I can predict who will win or lose.

Using Good Advice

The general who listens to my advice and acts on it will win. Keep that general in command! The general who does not listen to my advice and does not act on it will be defeated. Dismiss that general!

While you benefit from my advice, also look for any helpful situations that go beyond the usual rules. If circumstances are favorable, you should change your plans accordingly.

The Essential Role of Deception

All warfare is based on deception. This means:

• When you are able to attack, make it seem like you are unable.
• When you are using your forces, make it seem like you are inactive.
• When you are close to the enemy, make them believe you are far away.
• When you are far away, make them believe you are close.

Offer the enemy attractive bait to draw them in. Pretend to be disorganized, then crush them when they react.

Responding to the Enemy’s Condition

• If the enemy is secure and strong everywhere, be prepared to defend against them.
• If the enemy is much stronger than you, avoid fighting them directly.
• If your opponent has a quick temper, try to annoy them and make them angry.
• Pretend to be weak so that the enemy becomes arrogant and careless.
• If the enemy is resting, give them no peace; keep them moving.
• If their forces are united, find ways to separate them.

Attack the enemy where they are unprepared. Appear where they do not expect you.

These military tactics that lead to victory must not be revealed before the right moment.

The Importance of Planning

The general who wins a battle makes many detailed plans and calculations before the battle is even fought. The general who loses a battle makes very few plans beforehand.

So, many calculations lead to victory. Few calculations lead to defeat. Imagine what happens with no calculation at all! By paying attention to this point—careful planning—I can see who is likely to win or lose.

II. WAGING WAR

Sun Tzu said:

The High Cost of War

Think about what it takes to wage war. Imagine an army with:

• One thousand fast chariots.
• One thousand heavy chariots.
• One hundred thousand soldiers in armor. Imagine they have enough food and supplies to travel a thousand li (a unit of distance).

The cost for all this would be huge.

• You have expenses at home and at the battlefront.
• These include costs for entertaining guests, small things like glue and paint, and money for chariots and armor. All these expenses can add up to a thousand ounces of silver every single day. This is how much it costs to support an army of 100,000 soldiers.

The Dangers of Long Wars

When you are actually fighting, if it takes a long time to win:

• Your soldiers’ weapons will become dull.
• Their enthusiasm and fighting spirit will lessen. If you attack a town and it takes a long time to capture (a siege), your army will run out of strength.

Also, if the military campaign goes on for too long, the country’s resources will not be enough to support the effort.

When your weapons are dull, your soldiers’ spirits are low, your army is exhausted, and your money is all spent, other enemy leaders will see your weakness. They will rise up to take advantage of your difficult situation. If this happens, no one, no matter how wise, will be able to prevent the bad things that will follow.

So, in war, we have heard of being quick, even if it seems a bit foolish or rushed. But we have never seen a clever strategy that involved long delays.

There is no example of a country benefiting from a war that lasted a very long time.

Therefore, only someone who truly understands all the bad things about war can fully understand the best way to conduct it profitably—which means doing it quickly.

Acting Quickly and Decisively

A skillful soldier does not need to call up fresh troops a second time. His supply wagons do not need to be loaded more than twice.

Once war is declared, he will not waste valuable time waiting for more soldiers. He will not march his army back to get fresh supplies. Instead, he crosses into the enemy’s territory without delay.

Bring war supplies with you from home, but get your food from the enemy. This way, the army will have enough food to meet its needs.

The Economic Strain of War

If the country’s treasury is poor, it causes the army to be supplied by contributions sent from far away. Forcing the people to send supplies to a distant army makes the people poor.

Also, having an army nearby causes prices to go up. High prices drain the people’s money and resources.

When the people’s resources are drained away, they will suffer from heavy taxes and demands.

With this loss of resources and strength:

• The people’s homes will be empty and bare.
• Three-tenths of their income will be lost.
• Government expenses for broken chariots, worn-out horses, armor, helmets, bows, arrows, spears, shields, protective gear, work animals, and heavy wagons will use up four-tenths of its total income.

Foraging on the Enemy

This is why a wise general makes sure to get supplies from the enemy.

• One cartload of the enemy’s food is worth twenty of your own.
• Likewise, a single picul (a unit of weight) of the enemy’s animal feed is worth twenty from your own stores. (This is because it takes a lot of your own resources just to transport supplies to the front line.)

Motivating Your Soldiers

Now, to make your soldiers kill the enemy, they must be stirred up with anger. For them to see an advantage in defeating the enemy, they must receive rewards.

For example, in chariot fighting, when your soldiers capture ten or more enemy chariots, you should reward the ones who captured the first chariot.

• Replace the enemy’s flags with your own.
• Mix the captured chariots with your own and use them.
• Treat the captured enemy soldiers well and keep them (perhaps to use them).

This is called using the defeated enemy to make your own forces stronger.

The Main Goal: Victory, Not Long Campaigns

So, in war, your main goal should be victory. Do not aim for long military campaigns.

Therefore, you should know that the leader of armies is the one who decides the fate of the people. It depends on him whether the nation will be at peace or in danger.

III. ATTACK BY STRATAGEM

Sun Tzu said:

Winning by Keeping Things Whole

When you practice the art of war, the very best thing is to take the enemy’s country completely, without damaging it. Smashing and destroying it is not as good. In the same way, it is better to capture an enemy’s army whole, rather than destroying it. It is better to capture their smaller units—like regiments, detachments, or companies—whole, rather than destroying them.

Therefore, to fight and win every battle is not the highest skill. The highest skill is to break the enemy’s will to fight, so that you win without having to fight at all.

The Best Ways to Attack

Here are the best ways to lead an army, from best to worst:

1. The very best strategy is to disrupt and spoil the enemy’s plans before they can even start.
2. The next best is to prevent the enemy’s different groups of forces from joining together.
3. After that, the next option is to attack the enemy’s army directly in an open battle, when they are already fully assembled.
4. The worst strategy of all is to attack and surround walled cities (a siege).

The rule is: do not attack walled cities if you can possibly avoid it. Preparing special shields, movable shelters, and various tools for attacking a city will take three whole months. Building up large dirt mounds or ramps to get over the city walls will take another three months.

If a general cannot control his frustration with these delays, he might send his soldiers to attack like swarming ants. This could result in one-third of his men being killed, while the town still isn’t captured. These are the terrible effects of a siege.

The Skillful Leader’s Approach

Therefore, the skillful leader defeats the enemy’s troops without any fighting.

• He captures their cities without surrounding and attacking them for a long time.
• He overthrows their kingdom without needing lengthy military operations in the field.

With his own forces still intact and strong, he can compete for mastery of the Empire. In this way, without losing a single soldier, his victory will be complete. This is the method of attacking using strategy and clever planning.

Rules for Engagement Based on Numbers

Here are some rules for fighting:

• If your army is ten times stronger than the enemy’s, surround them.
• If your army is five times stronger, attack them.
• If your army is twice as strong, divide your army into two parts (perhaps one to attack from the front and one from another direction).
• If your forces are equally matched with the enemy, you can choose to fight.
• If your numbers are slightly smaller than the enemy’s, you can avoid a direct battle.
• If your army is much weaker in every way, you can flee from them.

So, even if a small force fights stubbornly, in the end, it will be captured by a larger force.

The General’s Importance to the State

The general is the main support and protector of the country.

• If this support is strong and complete in every way, the country will be strong.
• If this support is flawed or weak, the country will be weak.

How a Ruler Can Harm His Army

There are three ways a ruler can bring bad luck and trouble to his army:

1. By ordering the army to advance or to retreat when he does not understand that it cannot obey. This is like tying the army’s legs so it cannot move properly, or “hobbling the army.”
2. By trying to govern an army in the same way he runs a kingdom, without understanding the special conditions and needs of an army. This makes the soldiers restless and uneasy.
3. By choosing officers for his army without careful selection and without understanding the military need to adapt to different situations. This shakes the soldiers’ confidence in their leadership.

When the army is restless and distrustful, trouble is sure to come from other rival leaders or states. This is simply creating chaos in your own army and throwing away any chance of victory.

Five Essentials for Victory

So, we can know that there are five key things that lead to victory:

1. He will win who knows when to fight and when not to fight.
2. He will win who knows how to use both larger and smaller forces effectively.
3. He will win whose army has the same spirit and purpose throughout all its ranks, from top to bottom.
4. He will win who is prepared himself and waits for the enemy to be unprepared.
5. He will win who has military skill and is not interfered with by the ruler.

Know Yourself and Your Enemy

This leads to the famous saying:

• If you know the enemy and know yourself, you do not need to fear the result of a hundred battles.
• If you know yourself but not the enemy, for every victory you gain, you will also suffer a defeat.
• If you know neither the enemy nor yourself, you will lose every single battle.

IV. TACTICAL DISPOSITIONS

Sun Tzu said:

Securing Against Defeat, Awaiting Victory

Long ago, the best fighters first made sure they could not be defeated. Then, they waited for a chance to defeat the enemy.

Making yourself safe from defeat depends on your own actions. But the chance to defeat your enemy comes from the enemy themselves, often when they make a mistake.

So, a good fighter can make himself safe from defeat. However, he cannot guarantee that he will be able to defeat the enemy.

This is why it’s said: You might know how to win, but that doesn’t always mean you are able to win.

Defense and Offense

Being secure against defeat involves defensive tactics. Being able to defeat the enemy means taking offensive action.

• Standing on the defensive usually means your strength is not enough to attack.
• Attacking usually means you have more than enough strength.

The general who is skilled in defense hides his forces in the most secret ways, as if deep within the earth. This way, the enemy doesn’t know where he is. The general who is skilled in attack strikes like a lightning bolt from the sky, so suddenly that the enemy has no time to prepare.

So, on one hand, a skilled general can protect his own forces. On the other hand, he can achieve a complete victory.

True Excellence in Victory

It is not the highest skill to see victory only when everyone else can also see it.

Neither is it the highest skill if you fight and win, and the whole country says, “Well done!” (True excellence often involves winning so subtly or easily that it’s not widely noticed.)

• Lifting a tiny autumn hair is not a sign of great strength.
• Seeing the sun and moon is not a sign of sharp eyesight.
• Hearing the sound of thunder is not a sign of a quick ear.

What the ancient wise people called a clever fighter is someone who not only wins but wins with ease. This means they see problems and opportunities that others miss, allowing them to win without great difficulty.

Because of this, the victories of a truly clever fighter do not bring him a great reputation for wisdom. They also do not give him much credit for courage. This is because he wins by dealing with situations before they become obvious problems, often before any blood is shed. So, the world at large may not even know the full extent of his skill.

He wins his battles by making no mistakes. Making no mistakes is what guarantees victory, because it means he is conquering an enemy that is already in a losing position (perhaps due to their own errors or a situation the clever fighter created).

Therefore, the skillful fighter puts himself in a position where defeat is impossible. Then, he does not miss the right moment to defeat the enemy.

Planning for Victory Before Battle

This is why in war:

• The winning strategist only seeks battle after he has already made plans that ensure victory.
• The person who is going to lose often fights first and then tries to figure out how to win.

The truly excellent leader focuses on strong moral principles and strictly follows methods and discipline. By doing this, he has the power to control success.

The Steps to Victory in Military Planning

In military planning, there are five steps:

1. Measurement (understanding the ground or terrain).
2. Estimation (judging the enemy’s strength and resources based on measurements).
3. Calculation (figuring out numbers and logistics based on estimations).
4. Balancing of Chances (comparing your chances with the enemy’s based on calculations).
5. Victory (which comes from favorably balancing the chances).

Each step builds on the one before it:

• Measurement of the land helps you make Estimations.
• Estimations allow you to make Calculations.
• Calculations help you Balance the Chances of winning or losing.
• And Victory comes from carefully Balancing these Chances in your favor.

The Power of a Victorious Army

A victorious army, when compared to one that has already been defeated, is like putting a pound’s weight on a scale against a single tiny grain. The advantage is enormous.

The attack of a conquering force is like the sudden rush of dammed-up waters bursting through into a canyon a thousand fathoms deep. It is powerful and unstoppable.

V. ENERGY

Sun Tzu said:

Managing Large and Small Forces

Managing a large army uses the same basic ideas as managing a small group of soldiers. It’s all about how you organize them into smaller units.

Fighting with a large army is not really different from fighting with a small one. It’s all about using clear signs and signals to communicate and direct your troops.

To make sure your whole army can face the enemy’s attack without breaking, you need to use both direct and indirect ways of fighting.

Think of it like this: if your army strikes like a heavy grindstone crushing an egg, it is because you understand how to use your strengths against the enemy’s weaknesses.

Direct and Indirect Methods

In any battle, you can use direct methods – like a straightforward attack – to start the fight. But to actually win, you will also need indirect methods – like surprise attacks or unexpected moves.

Skillfully used, indirect tactics are endless, like Heaven and Earth. They are like the unending flow of rivers and streams. Like the sun and moon, they set only to rise again. Like the four seasons, they pass away only to return once more.

Infinite Combinations from Simple Elements

Think about these examples:

• There are only five basic musical notes. But when you combine these five notes, they create more melodies than anyone could ever hear.
• There are only five primary colors (like blue, yellow, red, white, and black). But when you combine them, they produce more shades and hues than anyone could ever see.
• There are only five basic tastes (like sour, sharp, salty, sweet, and bitter). But combinations of these create more flavors than anyone could ever taste.

In battle, there are really only two main methods of attack: the direct and the indirect. Yet, when you combine these two, they create an endless series of possible moves and strategies. The direct and indirect methods lead to each other, one after the other. It’s like moving in a circle – you never reach an end. Who could ever use up all the possibilities of their combination?

The Force of an Army and Decisive Action

The attack of your troops should be like a rushing river that is so powerful it can roll stones along in its path.

The quality of your decision-making should be like the perfectly timed swoop of a falcon. This allows it to strike and destroy its target at exactly the right moment.

Therefore, a good fighter will be terrifying in his attack and quick in his decision-making.

Energy in warfare can be compared to bending a crossbow. Decision is like the moment you release the trigger.

Order Within Disorder

In the middle of the noise and chaos of battle, there might seem to be disorder, but if you are well-prepared, there is no real disorder at all. Amid confusion and chaos, your forces might look like they have no clear formation, yet they will be able to resist defeat.

• Apparent disorder actually comes from perfect discipline.
• Apparent fear actually comes from underlying courage.
• Apparent weakness actually comes from underlying strength.

Using Deception Effectively

Hiding good order by pretending there is disorder is simply a matter of how your army is organized into smaller units. Concealing courage by showing fear assumes you have a hidden reserve of energy and power. Masking your strength by appearing weak is done through clever tactical arrangements and movements.

So, a general who is skilled at making the enemy move will create false appearances. The enemy will then act according to these false appearances. He might sacrifice something small to make the enemy try to grab it.

By offering such baits, he keeps the enemy on the move. Then, with a chosen group of his best soldiers, he lies in wait for the enemy.

Combined Energy

The clever fighter focuses on the effect of combined energy from all his troops. He does not demand too much from individual soldiers alone. This is why he is able to pick the right men for the right tasks and use their combined energy effectively.

When he uses this combined energy, his fighting men become like rolling logs or stones. It is the nature of a log or stone to stay still on flat ground but to move when on a slope. If it is square, it will stop. But if it is round, it will keep rolling down.

So, the energy created by good fighting men is like the powerful momentum of a round stone rolling down a mountain that is thousands of feet high. This is what we mean by energy.

VI. WEAK POINTS AND STRONG

Sun Tzu said:

Gaining the Advantage of Initiative

If you get to the battlefield first and wait for the enemy, you will be fresh and ready to fight. But if you are second and have to hurry to the battle, you will arrive tired.

Therefore, a clever fighter makes the enemy do what he wants. He does not let the enemy force him into unwanted situations.

By offering the enemy some advantages, you can make them come to you willingly. Or, by causing them damage or problems, you can make it impossible for them to get near you.

• If the enemy is resting, you can harass them and keep them on edge.
• If they have plenty of food, you can cut off their supplies and starve them out.
• If they are peacefully camped, you can force them to move.

Appear at places the enemy must rush to defend. March quickly to places where they do not expect you.

An army can march long distances without getting tired if it travels through areas where there is no enemy.

Attacking and Defending Wisely

You can be sure to win your attacks if you only attack places that are not defended. You can make sure your defense is safe if you only hold positions that cannot be successfully attacked.

So, a general is skilled in attack if his opponent does not know what to defend. A general is skilled in defense if his opponent does not know what to attack.

The Power of Secrecy

The skills of being subtle and secret are amazing! Through them, you learn how to be invisible to the enemy. Through them, you learn how to be silent and unheard by the enemy. And because of this, you can control what happens to the enemy.

• You can advance and be completely unstoppable if you aim for the enemy’s weak points.
• You can retreat and be safe from pursuit if your movements are faster than the enemy’s.

Forcing or Avoiding Battle

If we want to fight, we can force the enemy into a battle. This is true even if they are hiding behind high walls and deep ditches. All we need to do is attack some other important place that they will feel forced to protect and relieve.

If we do not want to fight, we can prevent the enemy from battling us. This is true even if our camp is only lightly marked out on the ground. All we need to do is put something strange and unpredictable in their way to make them hesitate.

Concentrating Force, Dividing the Enemy

By figuring out the enemy’s plans and positions while keeping our own hidden, we can keep our forces concentrated together. Meanwhile, the enemy will have to divide their forces to guard against us.

If we can form a single, united force while the enemy is split into smaller parts, then our whole force will be fighting against separate, smaller parts of their force. This means we will have many soldiers fighting against their few in any specific encounter.

And if we can attack a smaller enemy force with a larger one, our opponents will be in very serious trouble.

The place where we plan to fight must not be revealed to the enemy. If the enemy doesn’t know where the battle will be, they will have to prepare for possible attacks at many different points.

• If their forces are spread out in many directions to defend everywhere, the number of soldiers we have to face at any single point will be small.
• If the enemy strengthens their front, they will weaken their rear.
• If they strengthen their rear, they will weaken their front.
• If they strengthen their left side, they will weaken their right.
• If they strengthen their right side, they will weaken their left.
• If the enemy sends reinforcements everywhere to protect every point, they will be weak everywhere.

Numerical weakness often comes from having to prepare against many possible attacks. Numerical strength comes from forcing your enemy to make these kinds of widespread preparations against you.

Knowing When and Where to Fight

If we know the place and the time of the upcoming battle, we can bring our forces together from great distances in order to fight.

But if we do not know the time or the place of the battle, then:

• The left wing of the army will not be able to help the right.
• The right wing will not be able to help the left.
• The front (van) will not be able to relieve the rear.
• The rear will not be able to support the front. This is even more true if the furthest parts of the army are a hundred li (a unit of distance) apart, and even the closest parts are separated by several li.

Even if I estimate that the soldiers of Yueh (an enemy state) have more soldiers than we do, that will not give them any advantage in winning. I say then that victory can still be achieved.

Though the enemy may be stronger in numbers, we can prevent them from fighting if we plan well. Figure out their plans and how likely they are to succeed.

Stir up the enemy to learn how they act or react. Force them to show themselves so you can find their weak and vulnerable spots.

Carefully compare your army with the opposing army. This way, you will know where your strength is greater and where it is less.

Concealment and Adaptability

In making your tactical plans, the highest skill you can reach is to conceal them. If you hide your plans, you will be safe from the cleverest spies and from the tricky plans of the wisest enemy minds.

How victory can be created for your army out of the enemy’s own tactics—that is something most people cannot understand.

Everyone can see the tactics I use to win. But what no one can see is the overall strategy from which victory grows.

Do not repeat the same tactics that have won you a victory in the past. Instead, let your methods be guided by the endless variety of different situations.

Tactics Are Like Water

Military tactics are like water:

• Water, in its natural course, runs away from high places and rushes downwards.
• So in war, the way is to avoid what is strong and to strike at what is weak.

Water shapes its course based on the nature of the ground it flows over. A soldier works out his victory based on the enemy he is facing.

Therefore, just as water has no constant or fixed shape, in warfare there are no constant or fixed conditions.

A commander who can change his tactics based on his opponent and, by doing so, succeeds in winning, can be called a heaven-born captain—a truly exceptional leader.

The five elements (water, fire, wood, metal, earth) are not always equally dominant; they take turns. The four seasons make way for each other. There are short days and long days. The moon has its periods of shrinking and growing. Just like these natural changes, conditions in war are always shifting.

VII. MANEUVERING

Sun Tzu said:

Initial Preparations

In war, the general first receives his orders from the country’s ruler. After gathering the army and bringing all the forces together, the general must make sure all the different parts of the army work together smoothly and harmoniously. This must be done before setting up camp.

The Challenge of Maneuvering

After these preparations, the next step is moving the army tactically, and this is the hardest part of war. The challenge of tactical movement is to:

• Make a long, roundabout route seem like a direct one (to the enemy).
• Turn difficult situations and disadvantages into advantages.

So, if you take a long and indirect route after tricking the enemy into going out of their way, and even though you start after them, you manage to reach the goal before them—this shows you understand the clever trick of deviation (making the enemy misjudge your path and timing).

Maneuvering an army can bring advantages. But trying to maneuver an undisciplined crowd of soldiers is extremely dangerous.

The Risks of Forced Marches

If you set a fully equipped army on a long march just to grab a quick advantage, chances are you will be too late. On the other hand, if you send a smaller, fast-moving column for this purpose, you will have to leave its baggage and supplies behind, which is risky.

So, if you order your soldiers to:

• Roll up their protective coats (to travel light).
• Make forced marches without stopping day or night.
• Cover twice the usual distance in one go.
• March a hundred li (a unit of distance) just to gain an advantage. Then, the leaders of all your three army divisions will likely fall into the hands of the enemy.

The stronger soldiers will get ahead. The tired ones will fall behind. If you march this way, only about one-tenth of your army will actually reach its destination.

If you march fifty li to outmaneuver the enemy, you will likely lose the leader of your first division, and only half your soldiers will reach the goal.

If you march thirty li with the same goal, about two-thirds of your army will arrive.

The Importance of Supplies and Knowledge

We can conclude from this that:

• An army without its baggage train (carrying supplies) is lost.
• An army without food and provisions is lost.
• An army without bases of supply (places where resources are stored) is lost.

We cannot make alliances with neighboring rulers until we know their plans and intentions.

We are not fit to lead an army on the march unless we are very familiar with the land—its mountains and forests, its dangerous pits and steep cliffs, its marshes and swamps.

We will not be able to use natural advantages unless we use local guides.

Deception and Adaptability in Maneuvering

In war, practice deception, and you will succeed.

Whether to keep your troops together or divide them into smaller groups must be decided based on the circumstances.

• Let your speed be like that of the wind.
• Let your solid formation be like that of the forest.

Actions and Qualities in Maneuvering

• When raiding and plundering, be like fire—swift and consuming.
• When holding a defensive position, be unmovable like a mountain.

Let your plans be dark and impossible to see through, like night. When you move, strike like a thunderbolt.

When you take goods from the countryside, divide the plunder among your soldiers. When you capture new territory, divide it into portions for the benefit of your soldiers.

Think carefully and plan before you make any move.

He will win who has learned the clever trick of deviation (making the enemy misjudge your route and timing). This is the art of maneuvering.

From the “Book of Army Management” (Ancient Sayings on Battle Communication)

An old text called the “Book of Army Management” says: On the battlefield, the spoken word does not travel far enough. That is why gongs and drums were created. Ordinary objects cannot be seen clearly enough from a distance. That is why banners and flags were created.

Gongs, drums, banners, and flags are tools used to focus the ears and eyes of the entire army on one particular point or command.

When the whole army acts as a single, united body because of these signals, then:

• The brave soldier cannot advance alone (against orders).
• The cowardly soldier cannot retreat alone (against orders). This is the art of handling large numbers of soldiers.

So, in night fighting, make much use of signal fires and drums. In fighting by day, make much use of flags and banners. These are ways to influence what your army sees and hears, and thus how they act.

Understanding and Using an Army’s Spirit

A whole army can be robbed of its fighting spirit. A commander-in-chief can be robbed of his calm judgment and presence of mind.

Now, a soldier’s spirit is sharpest in the morning. By midday, it has started to fade. In the evening, his mind is only thinking about returning to camp.

Therefore, a clever general:

• Avoids an army when its spirit is keen and sharp.
• Attacks an army when its spirit is sluggish and its soldiers are wanting to go home. This is the art of studying moods.

Be disciplined and calm, and wait for disorder and chaos to appear among the enemy. This is the art of keeping your self-possession.

Be near the goal while the enemy is still far from it. Wait at ease while the enemy is working hard and struggling. Be well-fed while the enemy is starving. This is the art of managing your own strength wisely.

Do not try to stop an enemy whose banners are in perfect order. Do not attack an army that is arranged in a calm and confident way. This is the art of studying circumstances.

Key Rules for Engagement

It is a basic rule of military operations not to advance uphill against the enemy. Also, do not oppose an enemy when he is coming downhill.

• Do not pursue an enemy who is pretending to flee.
• Do not attack soldiers whose fighting spirit is very keen and aggressive.
• Do not swallow bait offered by the enemy.
• Do not interfere with an army that is returning to its home country.

When you surround an army, always leave them an escape route. (This is to prevent them from fighting with the desperate courage of those who have no way out.)

Do not push a desperate enemy too hard.

This is the art of maneuvering your army.

VIII. VARIATION IN TACTICS

Sun Tzu said: In war, a general first gets orders from the ruler. Then, the general gathers the soldiers and brings all their strength together.

Adapting to Different Situations

Here’s how to handle different types of land and situations:

• If the land is hard to move through, don’t set up camp there.
• If you are in an area where main roads cross, it’s a good idea to team up with allies.
• Don’t stay too long in dangerous places where you are cut off from help or supplies.
• If you find yourself trapped or surrounded, you must use clever plans and tricks to escape or gain an advantage.
• If you are in a desperate situation, with no other options, you must fight hard.

Knowing What Not to Do

Sometimes, the best action is no action, or a different action than what seems obvious:

• There are some roads you should not take. For example, a road might look like a shortcut, but it could lead you into an ambush or be too dangerous.
• There are some armies you should not attack. For instance, if you can’t win a decisive victory, attacking might only tire out your own troops for no real gain.
• There are some towns you should not try to capture by surrounding them (a siege). This might be true if the town isn’t very important, if you can’t hold it after you take it, or if attacking it would cost you too many soldiers and resources for what you’d gain.
• There are some positions on the battlefield you should not fight for.
• There are even some commands from the ruler that you should not obey. This is because the immediate needs of the military situation on the ground can be more important than an order that doesn’t fit the reality of the battle.

The Importance of Flexible Thinking

A general who truly understands the benefits of changing tactics knows how to command their troops effectively.

However, if a general doesn’t understand how to adapt their plans, they won’t be able to use their knowledge of the land to their advantage. This is true even if they know the terrain very well.

So, someone studying war who hasn’t learned how to change their plans as needed will fail to get the best performance from their soldiers. This is the case even if they are familiar with what are called the Five Advantages.

The Five Advantages are like general rules of thumb that often seem like good ideas in war, such as:

• Taking a road that is a shortcut.
• Attacking an enemy army that is isolated.
• Surrounding and attacking a town that seems weak or in trouble.
• Trying to capture a position if it seems possible to storm it.
• Obeying the ruler’s commands if they align with military goals.

But a smart general knows that you can’t always follow these general rules. For example:

• A short road might be full of hidden dangers or enemy ambushes.
• An enemy army might be isolated, but if they are desperate, they might fight with unexpected fury, making them too risky to attack at that moment.

Knowing when to stick to a general rule and when to choose a different path is crucial.

Balancing Advantage and Disadvantage

This is why wise leaders always consider both the potential good outcomes (advantages) and the potential bad outcomes (disadvantages) when they make their plans.

If we carefully balance our hopes of gaining an advantage against the risks and potential problems, we have a much better chance of successfully achieving the main goals of our plans. It’s important to always remember that the enemy can also cause us harm, so we must factor that into our thinking.

On the other hand, if we find ourselves in a difficult or dangerous situation, we should always be looking for any possible advantage we can seize. Being alert to these chances can help us get out of trouble. For instance, if your forces are surrounded, just trying to escape might make your troops seem weak and encourage the enemy to chase and destroy you. It might be much better to look for a moment to launch a strong counter-attack. Using the advantage gained from such an attack could be the key to freeing yourself from the enemy’s trap.

Weakening and Manipulating the Enemy

Here are ways to deal with enemy leaders and their forces:

• Weaken enemy leaders directly. You can do this by:
  • Making sure they lose their best and wisest advisors.
  • Finding ways to undermine their government from the inside.
  • Creating arguments and mistrust between the enemy leader and their officials or ministers.
  • Using clever tricks to make them waste their soldiers and resources.
  • Encouraging bad personal habits or decisions in the enemy leadership.
  • Distracting and confusing enemy leaders to cloud their judgment.
• Create ongoing problems for them. This means causing trouble that affects their army’s strength, their money and supplies, and the fighting spirit and unity of their soldiers.
• Keep their forces constantly busy. Don’t let the enemy have any time to rest or regroup.
• Use tempting bait to lure them. Offer what look like attractive opportunities or rewards to make the enemy rush to a specific place you want them to go. The goal is to make them act impulsively, without thinking things through clearly.

Rely on Preparation, Not Luck

The art of war teaches us a vital principle:

• Do not rely on the enemy not coming. Instead, rely on your own readiness to meet them.
• Do not rely on the chance that the enemy will not attack. Instead, rely on making your own position so strong that it cannot be successfully attacked.

Five Dangerous Faults in a General

There are five dangerous personality flaws that can ruin a general’s ability to lead in war:

1. Recklessness: This is being brave without thinking things through. A reckless general rushes into fights blindly, which only leads to destruction.
2. Cowardice: This is being too timid to act when an opportunity arises. A cowardly general might be too focused on their own safety and unwilling to take necessary risks. This can lead to their forces being captured.
3. A Hasty Temper: This type of general gets angry very easily. Enemies can use insults or tricks to provoke them, causing them to make poor decisions or fight when it’s not wise.
4. An Extreme Sensitivity to Shame or Honor: This general cares too much about their reputation in a superficial way and is easily upset by slander or criticism, even if it’s untrue. This makes them easy for opponents to manipulate. True honor is not about being thin-skinned.
5. Caring Too Much for Soldiers (in the wrong way): Of course, a general should care for their troops. But this fault describes a general who prioritizes the immediate comfort or desires of their soldiers over critical military goals. This is a shortsighted approach because, in the long run, it can lead to more worry, trouble, and even defeat. If the war is lost or drags on longer than necessary, the soldiers will suffer more. For example, a general might try to relieve a small, besieged group of soldiers even when it’s strategically unwise, potentially risking the entire army or the overall war effort.

These are five of the worst failings a general can have. They are ruinous to the conduct of war.

When an army is defeated and its leader is killed, the cause can almost always be found among these five dangerous faults. It is very important to think about these faults carefully.

IX. THE ARMY ON THE MARCH

Sun Tzu said: Now, let’s talk about where to set up camp for the army. We also need to discuss how to watch for signs of the enemy.

Positioning Your Army in Different Terrains

1. Mountains When you move your army, cross over mountains quickly. Try to stay near valleys. This is because valleys often have water and grass, which your army needs.

When you set up camp, choose high ground. This means places that are raised above the area around them. Have your camp face the sunny side (usually south or east). Do not climb up hills or heights to start a fight. These are key points for fighting in mountain areas.

2. Rivers After your army crosses a river, make sure to move far away from the riverbank. This gives you space to move and might also encourage the enemy to cross after you.

If an enemy army is crossing a river to advance towards you, do not attack them while they are still in the water. It is better to wait until about half of their soldiers have crossed the river. Then, you should launch your attack.

If you are eager to fight an enemy, and they need to cross a river to reach you, don’t set up your forces right near the river. If you are too close, you might scare them, and they might not cross at all.

When dealing with rivers and boats:

• Position your boats or troops on the riverbank further upstream than the enemy.
• Also, make sure they are facing the sunny side.
• Do not try to advance upstream to meet the enemy. If the enemy is upstream from you, they could release water to flood you, or use the current to their advantage in an attack. They might even poison the water. These are key points for fighting near rivers.

3. Salt Marshes When your army has to cross salt marshes, your main goal should be to get through them as fast as possible. Do not stop or delay. Salt marshes often lack fresh water and good plants for animals. They are also usually flat and open, making your army an easy target.

If you absolutely have to fight in a salt marsh:

• Make sure you are near a source of water and grass for your soldiers and animals.
• Position your army so that a group of trees is behind you. Trees can offer some protection for your rear and might indicate more stable ground. These are key points for operating in salt marshes.

4. Flat Country When you are in dry, flat country:

• Choose a position for your camp that is easy to reach.
• It’s best if there is rising ground to your right side and also behind your army.
• This way, any danger will be in front of you, and you will have more safety at your back and side. These are key points for campaigning in flat country.

General Principles of Terrain and Health

This advice about mountains, rivers, salt marshes, and flat country covers four important areas of military knowledge. It is said that this kind of knowledge helped the legendary Yellow Emperor defeat his enemies.

All armies prefer high ground over low ground. High ground is usually healthier and better for fighting. Low ground can be damp and unhealthy, and it puts you at a disadvantage in a fight. Armies also prefer sunny places instead of dark, shaded areas.

If you take good care of your soldiers, you will increase your chances of victory.

• Always try to find fresh water and good pasture for your animals.
• Set up your camp on firm, dry ground. When you do these things, your army is less likely to suffer from sickness. A healthy army is more likely to win.

When you reach a hill or a riverbank, position your army on the sunny side. It’s best if the slope of the hill or bank is behind you and to your right. This way, you help your soldiers by giving them a good position, and you also use the natural advantages of the land.

Sometimes, heavy rain far upstream can make a river swell up. If the river you need to cross is fast, high, and full of foam, you must wait. Do not try to cross until the water level goes down and the river is calmer.

Dangerous Terrain to Avoid

You should avoid certain types of difficult country. If you find yourself in them, leave as quickly as possible. Do not go near them if you can help it. These include:

• Areas with steep cliffs and fast-flowing streams between them.
• Deep, natural pits or depressions in the ground that are hard to get out of.
• Places that are easy to enter but very difficult to leave, like natural traps.
• Areas with very thick bushes and tangled plants where it’s hard to move or use weapons.
• Swamps or marshy ground with deep mud where chariots and horses can get stuck.
• Narrow cracks or tight passes between high cliffs.

You should stay far away from these kinds of dangerous places. However, you should try to make your enemy go near them. If you are facing these types of terrain, try to position your army so that the enemy has this difficult ground behind them.

If there are any of these types of areas near your camp, you must search them very carefully:

• Hilly areas.
• Ponds with a lot of water plants around them.
• Hollow areas filled with reeds.
• Woods with thick, dense bushes and trees. These are all places where enemy soldiers could be hiding to ambush you, or where spies could be watching your army.

Reading Enemy Signs

Here’s how to understand what the enemy might be doing by observing them:

If the enemy is close to you but stays quiet and doesn’t move, it means they feel secure because their position is naturally strong.

If the enemy keeps their distance but tries to provoke you into fighting, it means they want you to advance towards them. This is often because you are in a strong position, and they want to draw you out of it.

If the enemy has set up their camp in a place that looks very easy for you to reach and attack, they are likely offering you bait. It could be a trap.

• If you see movement among the trees in a forest, like trees shaking or falling, it shows the enemy is advancing. They are likely cutting down trees to clear a path for their army.

• If you see many small shelters or screens set up in the middle of thick grass, it means the enemy wants to make you suspicious. They might have run away and set these up to make you think it’s an ambush, so you will hesitate to follow them.

• If you see birds suddenly fly up from an area, it’s a sign that soldiers are hiding there in an ambush.

• If you see wild animals startled and running, it indicates that a surprise attack is about to happen.

Look at dust clouds to understand enemy movements:

• If dust rises in a tall, narrow column, it signals that chariots are advancing.
• If the dust is low to the ground but spread out over a wide area, it means infantry (foot soldiers) are approaching.
• If you see dust clouds branching out in different directions, it shows that small groups of soldiers have been sent out, probably to gather firewood.
• A few small clouds of dust moving back and forth suggest that the army is in the process of setting up camp.

Pay attention to the enemy’s words and actions:

• If the enemy uses humble or respectful words but at the same time is clearly increasing their military preparations, it’s a sign that they are about to advance. They might be trying to make you underestimate them or become careless.
• If the enemy uses harsh, aggressive language and makes movements as if they are about to launch a big attack, it’s often a sign that they are actually planning to retreat.

If you see the enemy’s light chariots move out first and take positions on the sides (the wings) of their force, it is a sign that they are arranging their army into formation for a battle.

If the enemy offers to make peace, but their proposal doesn’t include a serious, sworn agreement (like an official treaty with binding promises), it probably means they are planning some kind of trick or plot.

When you see a lot of activity on the enemy’s side, with soldiers rushing around and quickly lining up in their ranks, it means that a critical moment, like the start of a battle, is about to happen.

If you see some of the enemy soldiers moving forward while others are moving backward, it is likely a trick to lure you into a trap.

If you see enemy soldiers standing around and leaning on their spears for support, it’s a sign that they are weak, probably from lack of food.

If the soldiers the enemy sends to get water start drinking it themselves right away before taking it back, it shows that their whole army is suffering badly from thirst.

If the enemy clearly sees an opportunity to gain an advantage but makes no move to take it, it means their soldiers are probably exhausted.

• If you see birds gathering in a particular spot, it usually means that place is empty and unoccupied by soldiers. This can be useful if you suspect the enemy has secretly left their camp.
• If you hear a lot of noise and commotion from the enemy camp at night, it suggests they are nervous and uneasy.

Signs of trouble within the enemy camp:

• If there is unrest or disorder in the enemy’s camp, it indicates that their general’s authority is weak.
• If you see their banners and flags being moved around unusually, it could mean that a rebellion or mutiny is starting.
• If the enemy officers seem angry, it often means their soldiers are very tired and worn out.

If the enemy army starts feeding grain to its horses (which is unusual, as grain is typically for soldiers) and slaughtering its cattle for food, these are serious signs. Also, watch if their soldiers don’t hang up their cooking pots over the campfires. This shows they don’t plan to return to their tents. When you see these things, you know the enemy is determined to fight to the death.

If you see enemy soldiers gathering in small groups and whispering, or if they are speaking in very low voices, it points to unhappiness and a lack of loyalty among the ordinary soldiers.

• If the enemy leaders are giving out rewards too often, it means they are running out of options or resources. They might be using rewards to try and keep their soldiers happy because the situation is desperate and they fear a mutiny.
• If they are using too many punishments, it shows their army is in terrible trouble. Discipline may be falling apart, and the leaders feel they need to use extreme measures to keep control.

If an enemy leader starts off by acting very tough and aggressive, but then becomes frightened when they see the size or strength of your forces, it shows they have very poor judgment and lack intelligence.

When the enemy sends messengers (envoys) who speak very politely and offer compliments, it’s a sign that the enemy wants to arrange a truce, which is a temporary pause in the fighting.

If the enemy’s soldiers march towards you looking angry and aggressive, and then they just stand facing your army for a long time without either starting a battle or leaving, you must be extremely careful and watchful. This situation requires your full attention because it could be a trick. They might be trying to distract you while they prepare a surprise attack from the side or set up an ambush.

Strategy When Numbers Are Equal

If your army has about the same number of soldiers as the enemy, that’s enough to hold your ground. However, it means you probably shouldn’t try a direct, head-on attack. In this situation, here’s what you can do:

• Bring together all the strength you have. This might even include arming support staff if needed.
• Keep a very close watch on everything the enemy does.
• Try to get more soldiers (reinforcements) if possible, ideally from your own people rather than relying on outside groups who may not be as committed.
• Look for a clever way to win, rather than just using force.

Leadership, Discipline, and Soldier Morale

A leader who doesn’t think ahead and who underestimates their opponents is certain to be defeated and captured by them. Never treat any enemy with contempt, no matter how weak they might seem. Even small threats can be dangerous.

The timing of discipline is important:

• If you punish soldiers before they have developed a sense of loyalty and attachment to you as their leader, they will not obey you properly. If they are not obedient, they will be useless in a fight.
• On the other hand, even after your soldiers have become loyal to you, if you stop enforcing punishments when they are truly necessary, the soldiers will still become useless. This is because discipline will break down.

Therefore, you must treat your soldiers with fairness and kindness from the beginning. This helps build their loyalty. However, you must also maintain control through firm, strict discipline. This combination of humane treatment and strong discipline is a sure way to achieve victory.

If you consistently make sure your commands are followed during soldier training, the army will be well-disciplined. If commands are not regularly enforced, the army’s discipline will be poor.

If a general shows that he trusts his soldiers, but at the same time always insists that his orders are obeyed without question, then the benefits will be shared by everyone. The general has confidence in his men, and the men trust and respect the general’s authority. This mutual confidence helps ensure that orders are carried out effectively.

X. TERRAIN

Sun Tzu said: We can identify six main types of ground conditions that armies might encounter. Understanding these is crucial for any general.

Six Basic Types of Terrain

1. Accessible ground: This is ground that is generally open and easy for both your army and the enemy’s army to move through. It often has plenty of roads and ways to communicate.
2. Entangling ground: This kind of terrain is complex and difficult. Once you enter it, it’s easy for your forces to get caught, spread out, or “tangled up,” making organized movement and retreat hard.
3. Temporizing ground: This is ground where neither side gains a clear advantage by making the first move. It often leads to a standoff or delay in fighting, as both sides might hesitate.
4. Narrow passes: These are constricted routes, like tight passages through mountains or hills, where movement is very restricted.
5. Precipitous heights: These are very steep hills, high cliffs, or other sharply elevated areas that are difficult to climb or attack.
6. Positions at a great distance from the enemy: This describes situations where your army is located very far away from the enemy’s forces.

Let’s look at how to handle each of these:

1. Accessible Ground This is ground that both your army and the enemy’s army can cross easily. When dealing with accessible ground:

• Try to get there before the enemy.
• Once there, quickly occupy the higher ground and the sunny spots, as these offer better views and conditions.
• Very importantly, make sure to carefully protect your supply lines – the routes your food, ammunition, and equipment travel on. If the enemy cuts these, your army will be in serious trouble. If you do these things on accessible ground, you will be able to fight with an advantage.

2. Entangling Ground This is ground that your army might be able to leave, but it’s very difficult to get back into and re-occupy once you’ve given it up. From this type of ground:

• If the enemy is not prepared, you might be able to launch a surprise attack from it and defeat them.
• However, you must be very careful. If the enemy is prepared for your attack, and you attack but fail to defeat them, it will be extremely hard to retreat back to safety on this entangling ground. This situation could lead to a disaster for your army.

3. Temporizing Ground This is a type of position where neither your army nor the enemy’s army will gain an advantage by making the first move. It often leads to a standoff because both sides find it awkward or risky to advance. When you are on temporizing ground:

• Do not advance, even if the enemy offers you what seems like a tempting reason to attack. For example, they might pretend to retreat to lure you out. Don’t fall for it.
• Instead, it’s often better to make a controlled retreat yourself. This might trick the enemy into thinking you are weak or fleeing, and they might advance carelessly.
• If a part of their army comes out and separates from the main force, you can then turn and attack them with a good chance of success.

4. Narrow Passes Regarding narrow passes:

• If you can get to a narrow pass before the enemy, you should secure it with a strong force of soldiers. Then, hold that position and wait for the enemy to arrive. You will have the defensive advantage.
• If the enemy army gets to the pass before you and has guarded it well with many soldiers, do not try to attack them there. It will likely be too costly.
• You should only consider attacking them in the pass if they hold it with only a few soldiers and it is weakly guarded.

5. Precipitous Heights When it comes to very steep hills or cliffs:

• If you reach these heights before your enemy, you should immediately occupy the highest and sunniest positions. Then, prepare your defenses and wait for the enemy to try to climb up to you.
• If the enemy has already occupied these heights before you arrive, do not try to attack them by climbing up. This would put your soldiers at a great disadvantage. Instead, you should retreat and try to lure the enemy down from their strong high-ground position.

6. Positions at a Great Distance from the Enemy If your army is located very far away from the enemy, and both armies are about equal in strength:

• It will be difficult for you to force a battle on your terms.
• If you decide to march your army a long distance to reach them and fight, you will likely be at a disadvantage. Your troops will be tired from the long march, while the enemy will be rested and ready. Fighting under these conditions is usually not wise.

These six points explain key principles related to terrain. A general in a position of responsibility must study these principles very carefully.

Six Calamities Caused by a General’s Mistakes

An army can face six types of disasters. These problems don’t come from natural causes like bad weather. Instead, they happen because of serious mistakes made by the general. These six calamities are:

1. Flight: This is when your army is forced to run away in disorder. This can happen if, all other things being equal, a small force is sent to attack an enemy that is ten times larger. The smaller force will likely be overwhelmed and have to flee.

2. Insubordination: This occurs when the ordinary soldiers are too headstrong, unruly, or aggressive, but their officers are too weak or timid to control them effectively. The result is that soldiers will not follow orders, leading to chaos.

3. Collapse: This happens when the officers are very aggressive and eager to push forward, but the ordinary soldiers are too weak, poorly trained, or lack the spirit and motivation to keep up. The army can fall apart (collapse) under pressure, especially if the soldiers aren’t capable of executing the officers’ demanding plans.

4. Ruin: This disaster happens when high-ranking officers are angry, resentful, or disobedient, and then act on their own without proper authorization. If these officers meet the enemy and decide to start a battle based on their own personal feelings (like frustration or a desire for glory), before the commander-in-chief has determined if it’s the right time or situation to fight, the result is usually ruin for the army.

5. Disorganization: This state of utter confusion happens when several things go wrong with leadership:

   • The general is weak and doesn’t have strong authority.
   • The general’s orders are unclear, vague, or confusing.
   • Officers and soldiers don’t have clearly defined jobs, responsibilities, or routines.
   • The army formations are messy, careless, and not well-practiced. The result of these leadership failings is complete disorganization, making the army ineffective.

6. Rout: This is a complete and chaotic defeat where the army scatters. A rout often occurs when a general:

   • Cannot accurately judge the enemy’s true strength.
   • Allows a smaller or weaker group of his own soldiers to attack a much larger or more powerful enemy force.
   • Fails to place his best, most skilled, and most determined soldiers in the front lines to lead the attack, set an example, and inspire others. When these critical mistakes are made, the result will likely be a rout.

These are six ways a general can lead their army to defeat. Any general in a position of responsibility must carefully study and understand these potential failings to avoid them.

Qualities of a Great General and Keys to Victory

The natural layout of the land is a soldier’s best friend and can offer great advantages in warfare. However, the true test of a great general is their ability to:

• Accurately assess the enemy – their strengths, weaknesses, and intentions.
• Understand and control the factors and conditions that lead to victory.
• Skillfully and wisely calculate difficulties, dangers, and distances involved in any operation.

A general who understands these things – about terrain, about the enemy, about their own forces, and about strategy – and who uses this knowledge effectively when fighting, will win their battles. A general who does not know these things, or knows them but does not put them into practice, will certainly be defeated.

The general on the battlefield must make the final decision about fighting:

• If you are certain that fighting will lead to victory, then you must fight. This is true even if the ruler (your sovereign or government) has forbidden it.
• If you are certain that fighting will not lead to victory, then you must not fight. This is true even if the ruler orders you to attack. Your primary responsibility in the field is to act based on the military realities.

A general who advances in battle without chasing personal fame, and who retreats without fearing personal disgrace or punishment, is truly valuable. This kind of general’s only thought is to protect their country and serve their ruler effectively and honorably. Such a person is like a precious jewel to the kingdom.

Treat your soldiers like your own children. If you show them genuine care and concern, they will follow you into the most dangerous places and situations. Look upon them as your own beloved sons, and they will stand by you and fight for you bravely, even if it means risking death.

However, there’s a balance to this care. If you are too lenient or indulgent with your soldiers but cannot make them respect your authority; or if you are kind-hearted but cannot make them consistently obey your commands; or if you are unable to stop disorder and maintain discipline when it arises, then your soldiers will become like spoiled children. In that state, they will be useless for any practical military purpose.

Knowing the Whole Situation for Victory

To achieve victory, you need full awareness. Knowing only part of the situation means you are only halfway to winning:

• If you know your own soldiers are ready and able to attack, but you don’t know that the enemy is actually not in a good position to be attacked (perhaps they are too strong, too well-defended, or expecting you), you are only halfway to victory. The outcome will be uncertain.
• If you know the enemy is vulnerable and in a good position to be attacked, but you don’t know that your own soldiers are actually not ready or able to attack effectively (perhaps they are tired, demoralized, or unprepared), you are only halfway to victory.
• If you know the enemy is vulnerable, AND you also know your soldiers are ready and able to attack, but you don’t realize that the nature of the ground (the terrain) makes fighting impractical or too difficult at that specific spot, you are still only halfway to victory.

This is why an experienced soldier, who has prepared thoroughly and considered all these factors, is never confused once they start an operation. Once they have broken camp and are on the move, they are never unsure what to do, because they have already planned for different possibilities and understand the conditions.

So, there is a famous saying:

• If you know your enemy and know yourself, your victory will not be in danger.
• If you understand “Heaven” (this means things like the weather, the season, and the right timing for actions) and also understand “Earth” (the terrain, ground conditions, and how to use them), then your victory can be total and complete.

XI. THE NINE SITUATIONS

Sun Tzu said: In the art of war, we identify nine different kinds of situations or types of ground an army might find itself on. Understanding these is key. They are:

1. Dispersive ground
2. Facile ground (or Easy ground)
3. Contentious ground (or Key ground)
4. Open ground
5. Ground of intersecting highways (or Crossroads ground)
6. Serious ground
7. Difficult ground
8. Hemmed-in ground (or Enclosed ground)
9. Desperate ground

Let’s look at each one:

1. Dispersive Ground This is when you are fighting in your own territory, close to your soldiers’ homes. It’s called “dispersive” because soldiers might be tempted to scatter or return to their families, especially if the fighting gets tough. They might not fight with their full determination because safety and home are so near.

2. Facile Ground (Easy Ground) This is when your army has entered enemy territory, but only for a short distance, not too far from the border. It’s considered “easy” ground because it’s still relatively simple for your army to retreat back to your own land if necessary.

3. Contentious Ground (Key Ground) This is ground that would give a very big advantage to whichever side controls it. Because it’s so strategically valuable, both your army and the enemy will fight hard to possess it. Think of an important mountain pass, a vital river crossing, or a strategic hilltop that overlooks a large area.

4. Open Ground This is ground where both your army and the enemy can move around freely. There are usually few major obstacles, and it might have many roads or paths, making movement straightforward for both sides.

5. Ground of Intersecting Highways (Crossroads Ground) This type of ground is like a key strategic hub that connects three or more neighboring territories or states. If you control this spot first, you can gain great influence over the entire region. It often controls major routes and access, and other states might be forced to ally with you or respect your power.

6. Serious Ground This is when your army has pushed deep into enemy territory. You have left a number of enemy fortified towns or cities behind you (in your rear). Your situation here is “serious” because retreat is difficult, and you are surrounded by potential threats from the enemy population and remaining forces.

7. Difficult Ground This includes places that are very hard for an army to travel through, such as:

• Mountain forests with thick trees and rough terrain.
• Rugged, steep hills or cliffs.
• Swamps, marshes, and bogs where movement is slow and dangerous. Basically, any type of country that is very hard for an army to cross efficiently is difficult ground.

8. Hemmed-in Ground (Enclosed Ground) This is ground that you can only get to through narrow passages or gorges. To retreat from it, you would have to use winding, difficult paths. In this kind of dangerous place, even a small number of enemy soldiers could trap and potentially crush a much larger force of your men because your numbers don’t count for as much, and you can’t maneuver easily.

9. Desperate Ground This is ground where your army can only be saved from being completely destroyed by fighting immediately and with all its might. Escape is not an option. Imagine being trapped with your back to an uncrossable river, a steep cliff, or some other major obstacle, with the enemy blocking any way out.

Tactics for Different Situations

So, here are the basic rules for how to act on these different types of ground:

• On dispersive ground (your own territory, near homes), do not fight a major battle if you can avoid it. Your soldiers may lack the fierce determination needed, as they might be thinking of home.

• On facile (easy) ground (just inside enemy territory), do not stop or linger. Keep moving to get into a more secure position or push deeper into enemy land to commit your troops.

• On contentious (key) ground (strategically vital), do not attack if the enemy already holds it strongly. Instead, your main effort should be to quickly occupy such ground if it’s still available. If the enemy has it, it’s often better to try and lure them out of their strong position rather than launching a costly direct assault.

• On open ground (easy movement for both sides), don’t try to block the enemy’s path directly. It’s usually too easy for them to go around you, and your blocking force would be at risk of being outflanked. Instead, focus on keeping your own forces together and not allowing parts of your army to be cut off.

• On ground of intersecting highways (crossroads ground), work to form alliances with neighboring states or join forces with any allies you already have. Control of this ground affects many parties, so cooperation and diplomacy are key.

• On serious ground (deep in enemy territory with enemy cities in your rear), your army must focus on securing supplies. You may need to gather resources from the surrounding enemy area to sustain your forces, as retreat is hard, and you might need to hold your position for a while.

• On difficult ground (like mountains or swamps), keep your army moving steadily. Don’t try to set up camp in such places; your goal is to get through them as efficiently and safely as possible.

• On hemmed-in (enclosed) ground (where you are trapped by narrow passages), you must use clever plans and tricks (stratagems). Look for unusual ways to surprise or deceive the enemy to escape the trap.

• On desperate ground (no escape, must fight to survive), there is only one option: fight with all your strength, courage, and determination. Fighting hard is your only chance of survival.

How Skilled Leaders Used to Operate

Skillful military leaders of the past knew how to disrupt and confuse the enemy. They would:

• Find ways to separate the enemy’s front and rear units, so they couldn’t effectively support each other.
• Prevent the enemy’s large and small groups from working together smoothly.
• Stop strong enemy soldiers from rescuing weaker ones who were in trouble.
• Keep enemy officers from reorganizing their troops or rallying them if they started to break.

Even when the enemy’s forces were initially together and organized, these skilled leaders found ways to create confusion and disorder among them.

These leaders would advance and attack when they saw a clear advantage. If there was no advantage to be gained, or if the situation was unfavorable, they would hold their position and wait for a better opportunity.

Dealing with a Strong, Prepared Enemy

If someone asked me how to deal with a large, well-organized enemy army that is about to attack, I would say this: “Start by quickly capturing something that your opponent values greatly or depends on heavily. Once you have that, the enemy will be more likely to listen to you, or their plans will be disrupted, and they will have to react to your move.” This “something valuable” could be a key strategic position, their supply lines, an important ally, or anything else they cannot afford to lose. By taking such an initiative, you can force the enemy onto the defensive.

The Importance of Speed

Speed is the most important element in warfare.

• Take advantage of any moment when the enemy is not ready or is unprepared.
• Move your army by unexpected routes that the enemy doesn’t anticipate.
• Attack spots that the enemy has left unguarded or where they least expect an attack.

Principles for an Invading Army

Here are some key ideas for an army that is invading enemy territory:

The deeper you go into an enemy’s country, the more your soldiers will tend to stick together and support each other. This happens because they are far from home, surrounded by hostility, and reliant on each other for survival. When your troops have this strong sense of unity and determination, the local defenders will find it much harder to defeat you.

When you are in fertile enemy country, send out parties to gather food and supplies for your army. Use the enemy’s own resources to support your troops. This reduces the strain on your own supply lines.

Pay close attention to the well-being of your soldiers. Make sure they have what they need (food, rest). Do not push them too hard or exhaust them unnecessarily, as tired soldiers fight poorly.

• Focus your army’s energy and build up its strength for critical moments.
• Keep your army constantly moving in unpredictable ways, if the situation allows. This makes it difficult for the enemy to know exactly where you are or what you plan to do next.
• Create plans that are so clever and secret that the enemy cannot easily figure them out.

To make your soldiers fight with the utmost desperation and courage, put them in situations where there is no way out – where they cannot escape. When faced with such a choice, where retreat means certain death or capture, they will often choose to fight to the death rather than flee. This is when they will fight their hardest, because it’s their only chance.

When your soldiers are ready to face death, there is nothing they cannot achieve. Officers and soldiers alike will use every bit of their strength.

The Mindset of Desperate Soldiers

When soldiers are in truly desperate situations, they lose their sense of fear.

• If there is nowhere safe to retreat to, they will stand their ground firmly.
• If they are deep in enemy territory, they will show a stubborn and unyielding resistance.
• If there is absolutely no other way out, they will fight with extreme effort.

Therefore, in these desperate situations:

• Soldiers will be constantly alert and watchful, even without being formally arranged for battle.
• They will do what you need them to do, without you even having to ask.
• They will be faithful to you, even without specific rules or restrictions compelling them.
• You can trust them to do the right thing, even without giving them constant orders.

Forbid your soldiers from trying to predict the future through omens or superstitions. Get rid of any superstitious doubts they might have. If soldiers are not worried about unlucky signs or bad fortunes, then no disaster needs to be feared until death itself arrives. This focus helps them stay resolute.

If your soldiers are not weighed down with money or concerned about riches in such situations, it’s not because they dislike wealth. If they risk their lives, it’s not because they dislike living a long time. It simply means that in these extreme circumstances, other concerns (like survival or duty) become more important, or the general has created a situation where these are secondary.

On the day soldiers are ordered into a battle where they must do or die, they might show signs of deep emotion, perhaps even weeping. This isn’t necessarily from fear, but from the understanding of the seriousness of their commitment. However, once they are in a situation where they are cornered and must fight, they will show incredible courage, like the bravest heroes of legend.

The Coordinated Army: Like the Shuai-Jan Snake

A skillful military leader handles their army like the Shuai-jan. The Shuai-jan is a type of snake said to be found in the Ch’ang mountains.

• If you hit its head, its tail will immediately strike you.
• If you hit its tail, its head will immediately strike you.
• If you hit its middle, both its head and its tail will attack you. This snake responds instantly and cooperatively, with all parts working together.

If you ask whether an army can be made to act like the Shuai-jan, with all its parts supporting each other instantly, the answer is yes.

Think about this: the people of the ancient states of Wu and Yueh were bitter enemies. Yet, if men from Wu and men from Yueh were in the same boat crossing a river and a dangerous storm came up, they would help each other survive, just as your left hand naturally helps your right hand. If even enemies cooperate in shared danger, then different parts of the same army, who share common goals and loyalties, should certainly be able to do so.

Therefore, it’s not enough to rely on physical tricks to prevent your soldiers from running away, like tying up the horses or burying chariot wheels in the ground so they can’t move. Such mechanical means won’t guarantee success. An army needs more: its soldiers must have determination, a shared purpose, and above all, a spirit of willing cooperation between all units. This is the true lesson of the Shuai-jan snake.

A key principle for managing an army is to establish one standard of courage that all soldiers must meet. Everyone, from the front to the rear, should share the same level of bravery and resolve, as if the whole army were one person.

How do you get the best performance out of both your stronger and your weaker soldiers? This depends on how skillfully you use the ground. By choosing the right positions, you can make weaker troops as effective as stronger ones. For example, less reliable soldiers can hold a strong defensive position just as well as better soldiers might hold a more open or dangerous one. The advantage of the ground can make up for differences in skill or courage.

So, a skillful general leads their army with such control and unity that it’s like leading a single person by the hand – they go where the general directs, easily and without resistance.

Qualities of a General

A general must be:

• Quiet and calm: This helps to keep plans secret.
• Upright and fair: This helps to maintain good order and discipline within the army.

A general must be able to confuse their own officers and soldiers with false information and misleading appearances. The goal is to keep them from knowing the true plans. This prevents information from leaking to the enemy and ensures that soldiers follow orders without question, focused only on their immediate tasks.

By frequently changing troop formations and altering plans, a general keeps the enemy guessing. By moving the camp often and taking indirect routes, the general prevents the enemy from figuring out their true intentions.

At the crucial moment of commitment, the leader of an army acts like someone who has climbed to a high place and then kicks the ladder away. This means creating a situation where there is no turning back. The general leads their soldiers deep into enemy territory, fully committing them to the fight, before revealing the full plan or the final objective.

A general in such situations might “burn his boats and break his cooking pots” after crossing a river. This is a symbolic way of saying he removes all means of retreat, forcing his soldiers to focus only on advancing and fighting. Like a shepherd guiding a flock, he directs his soldiers here and there, and they follow his commands without necessarily knowing the overall strategy or final destination.

To gather the army and then lead it into situations of danger (to achieve a specific strategic goal) – this is the fundamental job of a general.

A general absolutely must study these things:

• The different actions and strategies that are best for each of the nine types of ground.
• When it is wise to use aggressive tactics (attacking) and when it is better to use defensive tactics.
• The basic principles of human nature (how people behave, especially under pressure).

Key Principles for Invasion (Recap)

When invading enemy territory, remember this general rule:

• Pushing deep into the country helps your soldiers stick together and become more united (cohesion).

• Penetrating only a short distance can lead to your soldiers being more likely to scatter or be less committed (dispersion).

• When you leave your own country and have to cross the territory of a neighboring (perhaps neutral) state to reach your enemy, you are on critical ground. This situation is sensitive and usually means you need to achieve your goals there quickly.

• When you are on ground with roads and routes going in all four directions, allowing easy movement to many places, this is ground of intersecting highways.

• When you push deep into an enemy’s country, that is serious ground.

• When you have entered enemy land but only gone a short distance, that is facile ground.

• When you have enemy fortresses or strong positions behind you, and narrow, difficult passes in front of you, that is hemmed-in ground.

• When there is absolutely no safe place to retreat to, that is desperate ground.

Actions for Specific Grounds (Reinforced)

Therefore:

• On dispersive ground (in your own territory), work to inspire your soldiers with a strong, unified sense of purpose to counteract their tendency to scatter. Often, this means being defensive and avoiding unnecessary battles.

• On facile ground (just inside enemy territory), ensure all parts of your army stay closely connected and coordinated. This helps prevent desertions and guards against surprise attacks.

• On contentious ground (key, valuable ground), you should quickly bring up all your forces, including those at the rear. The goal is to make sure your entire army can reach and secure this vital position promptly or engage the enemy there with full strength.

• On open ground, pay very close attention to your defenses and be constantly watchful, as the enemy can also move freely.

• On ground of intersecting highways, work to strengthen your alliances with neighboring states.

• On serious ground (deep in enemy territory), make every effort to ensure your army has a continuous stream of supplies, likely by foraging and gathering from the area.

• On difficult ground, keep your army moving forward along the road or path. Don’t stop or get bogged down.

• On hemmed-in ground (where you are enclosed), I would block my own army’s ways of retreat. This extreme measure is to make my soldiers fight with absolute desperation, knowing there’s no escape, or it can be a deception to make the enemy believe you are making a final stand while planning a breakout.

This is a continuation of principles for an invading army.

When your soldiers are ready to face death like this, there is nothing they cannot achieve. Officers and ordinary soldiers alike will use every last bit of their strength.

The Mindset of Desperate Soldiers

When soldiers find themselves in truly desperate situations:

• They often lose their sense of fear.
• If there is no safe place to run to, they will stand their ground and fight firmly.
• If they are deep in enemy territory, they will put up a stubborn and determined resistance.
• If there is no other choice or way out, they will fight with all their might.

Therefore, in these desperate circumstances:

• Your soldiers will be constantly on high alert, even without you needing to formally arrange them for battle.
• They will understand and do what you need them to do, often without even being asked directly.
• They will remain faithful and loyal, even without strict rules constantly reminding them.
• You can trust them to act correctly, even without giving them moment-by-moment orders.

Forbid your soldiers from trying to read omens or engage in superstitious practices. Eliminate any doubts that arise from such beliefs. If you do this, then your soldiers will have no other disaster to fear until death itself arrives. This helps them to be resolute and unwavering.

If your soldiers in such situations don’t seem concerned about money or riches, it’s not because they naturally dislike wealth. If they risk their lives, it’s not because they don’t want to live a long time. Rather, it means that in these extreme circumstances, other things – like survival, duty, or the impossibility of escape with riches – become far more important. A wise general creates conditions where focusing on anything but the fight seems pointless.

On the day they are ordered into a battle from which there might be no return, your soldiers might show deep emotion, even shedding tears. This isn’t necessarily a sign of fear, but rather shows their understanding of the grave commitment they’ve made—a resolve to do or die. But once they are cornered and the fighting begins, they will display the courage of the greatest heroes.

The Coordinated Army: Like the Shuai-Jan Snake

A skillful military leader handles their army much like the Shuai-jan. The Shuai-jan is a snake said to live in the Ch’ang mountains.

• If you strike its head, its tail will immediately attack you.
• If you strike its tail, its head will immediately attack you.
• If you strike its middle, both its head and tail will attack you. It reacts as one unified body.

If you ask whether an army can be trained to react with such perfect coordination, like the Shuai-jan, the answer is yes.

Consider this: the people of Wu and Yueh were traditional enemies. Yet, if men from these two states were in the same boat crossing a river and a dangerous storm arose, they would instinctively help each other to survive, just as a person’s left hand helps their right. If even bitter enemies will cooperate when facing a common danger, then different parts of the same army, united by shared goals, should certainly be able to achieve such cooperation.

Therefore, it’s not enough to rely on physical measures to prevent your army from retreating, such as tying up horses or burying chariot wheels to make them immobile. Such tricks alone won’t make your army effective. True success requires your soldiers to have determination, a unified purpose, and most importantly, a spirit of willing and sympathetic cooperation. This is the real lesson of the Shuai-jan’s coordinated movement.

A fundamental principle for managing an army is to establish a single, high standard of courage that every soldier must meet. The aim is for the entire army to act with a unified level of bravery and resolve.

How can you make the best use of both your strong and your weaker soldiers? The answer involves using the terrain skillfully. By placing troops in positions that suit their capabilities – for example, by assigning less experienced soldiers to well-protected defensive spots – you can make all parts of your army effective. The right ground can compensate for differences in strength or experience.

A skillful general, therefore, leads their army with such unity and control that it’s like guiding a single person by the hand – the army moves and acts as one, following the general’s direction effortlessly.

Key Qualities and Actions of a General

It is essential for a general to be:

• Quiet and reserved: This helps keep plans secret and prevents information from leaking.
• Upright and fair: This helps maintain good order and discipline within the army.

A general must be able to mislead their own officers and soldiers using false reports and deceptive appearances. The purpose is to keep them completely unaware of the true plans. This prevents vital information from reaching the enemy and ensures soldiers follow orders with focus, without questioning the broader strategy.

By constantly changing troop arrangements and modifying plans, a general keeps the enemy from knowing what to expect. By frequently moving the camp and taking indirect or unexpected routes, the general prevents the enemy from predicting their true goals.

At the decisive moment, a general leads their army like someone who climbs to a high place and then kicks the ladder away. This means creating a point of no return. The general takes their soldiers deep into enemy land, fully committing them, before revealing the ultimate plan or objective.

The general might “burn his boats and break his cooking pots” (symbolically or literally) to show there’s no going back. Like a shepherd guiding sheep, the general directs the soldiers with specific commands, and they follow without needing to know the grand strategy or final aim.

The main job of a general can be described as this: to gather the army and then lead it purposefully into dangerous situations to achieve victory.

A general must diligently study these things:

• The best actions and strategies for each of the nine different types of ground.
• When it’s best to attack (aggressive tactics) and when it’s better to defend (defensive tactics).
• The basic principles of human nature, especially how people react under stress and in groups.

Recap: Key Principles of Invasion and Ground

When invading enemy territory, a key principle is:

• Going deep into the country helps your soldiers bond and stick together (cohesion).

• Advancing only a short way into enemy land can lead to your forces being more scattered or less committed (dispersion).

• When you leave your own country and must cross the territory of a neutral or third-party state to reach your enemy, you are on critical ground. This situation is sensitive and usually demands that you complete your objectives there very quickly.

• When you are on ground that has roads leading in all directions, that is ground of intersecting highways.

• When you go deep into enemy territory, it is serious ground.

• When you have only gone a short way into enemy land, it is facile ground.

• When you have enemy fortresses behind you and narrow passes ahead, it is hemmed-in ground.

• When there is absolutely no safe place to retreat to, it is desperate ground.

Reinforced Tactics for Specific Grounds

Therefore:

• On dispersive ground (your own territory), focus on inspiring your soldiers with a strong sense of unity and common purpose. Often, this means staying on the defensive and avoiding risky battles that could cause them to scatter.

• On facile ground (just inside enemy land), make sure all parts of your army stay in close contact and are well-coordinated. This helps prevent desertions and protects against sudden enemy attacks.

• On contentious ground (key strategic land), quickly bring up all your forces, including those marching at the rear. The aim is to ensure your entire army can reach and secure this vital position fast, or engage the enemy there with its full strength.

• On open ground, where movement is easy for both sides, be extremely watchful and pay close attention to your army’s defenses.

• On ground of intersecting highways, work to strengthen and make firm your alliances with any neighboring states involved.

• On serious ground (deep in enemy territory), make every effort to ensure a constant flow of supplies for your army, often by gathering resources from the local area.

• On difficult ground (like mountains or swamps), keep your army pushing steadily forward along the available road or path. Avoid stopping or getting bogged down.

• On hemmed-in ground, I would block my own army’s paths of retreat. This is an extreme step taken to force my soldiers to fight with total desperation, knowing there’s no way out, or it might be a deception tactic.

• On desperate ground, I would make it absolutely clear to my soldiers that there is no hope of saving their lives unless they fight and win. The only chance of survival is to abandon all hope of escape and fight to the death.

Understanding Soldier Psychology in Extreme Situations

It is a soldier’s natural tendency to:

• Offer strong resistance when they are surrounded.
• Fight hard when they have no other choice.
• Obey orders quickly and without question when they realize they are in danger.

Essential Knowledge for a General

Remember these crucial points (which have been emphasized before because of their importance):

• You cannot make effective alliances with rulers of neighboring areas unless you understand their plans and intentions.
• You are not fit to lead an army on the march if you are not familiar with the land – its mountains, forests, dangerous spots like pitfalls and cliffs, and difficult areas like marshes and swamps.
• You will not be able to use the natural advantages of the terrain unless you use local guides who know the area well.

A leader who aims to be successful in war cannot afford to be ignorant of key military principles like these.

When a skilled military leader attacks a powerful state, their true ability is shown by how they prevent the enemy from gathering all its forces together. Such a leader intimidates their direct opponents and also makes other enemy allies hesitant to join the fight against them.

Therefore, this kind of effective leader doesn’t try to make alliances with everyone, nor do they focus on helping other states become more powerful. Instead, they carry out their own secret plans, keeping their enemies intimidated. By doing this, they are able to capture enemy cities and defeat their kingdoms.

Flexibility in Command

To handle your army as effectively as if it were a single person:

• Give out rewards based on merit and current needs, not just according to old rules.

• Issue orders that fit the immediate situation, even if they contradict previous plans. This unpredictability can prevent treachery and keep the enemy off balance. Instructions might only be finalized when the enemy is in sight or deserving deeds are seen.

• Present your soldiers with the task at hand (the “deed itself”); do not always explain your overall strategic reasons or designs to them.

• When the situation looks good and prospects are bright, share that positive outlook with them.

• However, if the situation is gloomy or dangerous, do not burden them with that information.

If you place your army in a situation of extreme danger, it often forces them to fight so hard that they survive. If you plunge your army into desperate conditions where they have no other choice, they will often find a way to achieve safety through their fierce efforts.

It is often when an army finds itself in a dangerous or harmful situation that it becomes capable of summoning the will to strike a decisive blow for victory. Danger can sometimes sharpen resolve.

Success in war is often gained by cleverly adapting to what the enemy seems to want to do. For example:

• If the enemy wants to advance, you might lure them forward into a trap by pretending to yield.
• If they seem anxious to retreat, you might delay them in a subtle way that makes them careless. The goal is to make the enemy overconfident or unwary before you launch your real attack.

By constantly pressuring the enemy’s flank (their sides) over a long distance or period, you may eventually succeed in a major objective, like defeating or capturing their commander-in-chief. This kind of success is called the ability to achieve your goals through sheer cleverness and cunning.

Actions Upon Taking Command

On the day you take command of an army for a campaign:

• Block all the frontier passes to control movement in and out of your area.
• Destroy the official permits or passports used for travel (this secures your borders and prevents unauthorized movement or spying).
• Stop all messengers or envoys from crossing the borders (whether they are coming from or going to the enemy’s country).

Be firm and decisive in your war council meetings. Show no weakness, and ensure your plans are clearly understood and agreed upon so you can control the overall situation effectively.

If the enemy makes a mistake and leaves an opening or a weakness exposed (like an unguarded path or a flaw in their defenses), you must immediately rush in and take advantage of it.

Get ahead of your opponent by capturing something they value greatly. At the same time, cleverly arrange things so that you can control or predict when and where they will arrive on the battlefield or at a key location. This might involve deceiving them into going where you want them, when you want them there.

Follow established military principles and methods. At the same time, adapt your actions based on what the enemy does. Continue to adjust to their movements and tactics until a clear opportunity arises for you to fight a decisive battle.

So, at first, act with caution and appear non-threatening, like a shy young woman. Wait patiently until the enemy makes a mistake or shows an opening. Once they do, you must then act with the sudden speed of a running hare. If you strike this quickly, it will be too late for the enemy to effectively stop you or defend themselves.

XII. THE ATTACK BY FIRE

Sun Tzu said: There are five ways to use fire in an attack:

1. Burn enemy soldiers in their camp: Set their camp on fire to cause casualties and chaos.
2. Burn enemy stores: Destroy their supplies, such as food, fuel, and animal fodder.
3. Burn enemy baggage trains: Target the wagons and equipment that carry their essential goods and provisions while they are on the move.
4. Burn enemy arsenals and magazines: Destroy their stockpiles of weapons, equipment, and other important military items.
5. Hurl fire amongst the enemy: Shoot flaming arrows or other burning projectiles into the enemy’s formations or positions.

Preparing for a Fire Attack

To successfully attack with fire, you must have the right conditions and tools:

• Favorable conditions are necessary: This includes things like dry weather and wind that will help the fire spread. Sometimes, it might also mean having help from inside the enemy’s camp.
• Fire-starting materials must be ready: Always keep a good supply of materials needed to start fires quickly and effectively.

Timing Your Fire Attack

There are specific times when fire attacks are most effective:

• The right season: The best time is during very dry weather, as fire will catch and spread more easily.
• Special days: Certain days are better for starting large fires because they are known to have rising winds. (In ancient times, these days were identified by the moon’s position relative to certain star constellations believed to influence wind.) The key is to choose days when the wind is likely to be strong.

Responding to Developments in a Fire Attack

When you use fire, be ready for five possible outcomes and know how to react:

1. Fire inside the enemy camp: If fire breaks out inside the enemy’s camp, immediately launch an attack from the outside to take advantage of the confusion.
2. Enemy remains calm despite fire: If fire breaks out, but the enemy soldiers stay calm and organized, be cautious. Do not attack yet. Their calmness might mean they are prepared for your assault.
3. Flames at their strongest: When the fire is burning fiercely and at its peak, attack if it seems practical and you have a good chance of success. If an attack still looks too difficult or risky, hold your position.
4. Attacking with fire from outside: If you have the opportunity to start a fire from outside the enemy camp (for example, if their camp is in a grassy area that you can set alight), do it at a favorable moment. Don’t just wait and hope for a fire to start inside their camp on its own.
5. Positioning relative to wind: When you start a fire, make sure you are upwind (the wind is blowing from you towards the enemy). Do NOT attack from the leeward side (downwind), because you would be advancing into the smoke and flames yourself.

Generally, a wind that starts during the day tends to last for a long time. A breeze that comes up at night often dies down more quickly.

Every army must understand these five ways a fire attack can develop and how to respond. Leaders should also observe patterns to help predict weather and wind, and carefully choose the right days for fire attacks. It’s also wise to be prepared for the enemy to use fire against you.

Fire and Water as Attack Aids

Generals who use fire to help their attacks show cleverness and intelligence. Those who use water (like creating floods) to help their attacks gain an increase in their effective strength.

Water can be used to block an enemy’s path or to cut off parts of their army. However, water attacks usually don’t destroy all of the enemy’s supplies and equipment in the same way that fire can. Fire has a more devastating destructive power.

The Need for Action and Prudent Leadership

It is a bad outcome for any leader who tries to win battles and succeed in attacks without a spirit of enterprise – that is, without being bold, taking initiative, and seizing opportunities. If a leader is not enterprising, the result is wasted time and a general slowdown where nothing gets achieved. To succeed, you must act decisively at the right moments, using all available tools, including bold measures like fire or water attacks when appropriate. Don’t just hold onto what you have and do nothing.

This leads to the saying:

• An enlightened (wise) ruler makes careful plans far in advance.
• A good general works hard to develop and manage their resources effectively, including their soldiers’ training, morale, supplies, and equipment.

Follow these principles for action:

• Do not make a move unless you see a clear advantage.
• Do not use your troops unless there is something definite to be gained.
• Do not fight unless the situation is critical and fighting is necessary.

A ruler should never send troops into battle just because of their own anger or bad temper. A general should never fight a battle simply because they feel irritated or resentful. Decisions for war must be based on sound strategic reasons, not personal emotions.

If acting gives you an advantage, then make your move. If not, stay where you are and wait for a better opportunity.

Feelings can change over time. Anger can eventually turn into happiness. Frustration can be followed by contentment. However, a kingdom that has been destroyed can never be brought back to existence. And people who have died can never be brought back to life. These losses are permanent, unlike emotions which can change.

Therefore, a wise ruler is very careful and pays attention to these realities. A good general is full of caution and thinks deeply before acting. This careful and cautious approach is the way to keep a country at peace and an army safe and whole.

XIII. THE USE OF SPIES

Sun Tzu said: Raising a large army of a hundred thousand soldiers and marching them long distances costs the people and the country a great deal.

• It drains the state’s resources.
• The daily cost can be huge.
• There will be unrest and disruption both at home and in the areas the army passes through.
• Soldiers and supply carriers will become exhausted.
• Many thousands of families will be unable to do their regular farm work and other jobs because people are away fighting or supporting the war effort.

Armies can face each other for many years, with both sides waiting for a victory that might be decided in just a single day of decisive battle.

Because of this, it is extremely inhumane to stay ignorant of the enemy’s situation simply because you don’t want to spend a relatively small amount of money on paying for spies and rewarding them. Not using spies means the war could drag on, costing far more in lives and resources. Therefore, failing to use spies is a terrible mistake that harms everyone.

A leader who refuses to use spies because of the cost is:

• Not a true leader of people.
• No real help to their ruler or government.
• Not capable of achieving victory.

So, what allows a wise ruler and a good general to attack successfully, conquer their enemies, and achieve things that ordinary people cannot? It is foreknowledge. This means knowing the enemy’s situation, their plans, and what they intend to do.

This essential foreknowledge cannot be obtained:

• From spirits or supernatural means.
• Simply by looking at past experiences and trying to guess what will happen next.
• Through purely logical or mathematical calculations.

Knowledge of the enemy’s situation, plans, and movements can only be gotten from other people – specifically, from spies.

The Five Types of Spies

This is why we use spies. There are five types of spies:

1. Local spies
2. Inward spies
3. Converted spies
4. Doomed spies
5. Surviving spies

When all five types of spies are working effectively at the same time, it creates a complex intelligence network that the enemy cannot understand or penetrate. This skillful use of spies is like a secret and powerful system. It is one of the ruler’s most valuable tools.

1. Local Spies These are people who live in the enemy’s district or country. You use them to gather information about their own area. You might win them over by treating them kindly or offering rewards.

2. Inward Spies These are officials who work for the enemy government or military. You find ways to secretly recruit them to provide you with inside information. This might involve finding people who are unhappy, greedy, or have other reasons to betray their side, and then offering them incentives.

3. Converted Spies These are spies originally sent by the enemy. You manage to capture them and then “convert” them – that is, you persuade them (perhaps with bribes, promises, or other means) to work for your side instead. They can then provide you with information about the enemy or even carry false information back to their original employers.

4. Doomed Spies These are spies (sometimes your own men who don’t know the full plan, or even enemy agents you are manipulating) who are deliberately given false information. You make it seem like this information is true and has been discovered accidentally. When these spies are captured by the enemy, or if they report back to the enemy, they will pass on this false information. The enemy will then act based on this bad intelligence, which will lead them to make mistakes. These spies are called “doomed” because once the enemy realizes the information was false, the spies are often killed. The main purpose is to deceive the enemy, even at the cost of the spy.

5. Surviving Spies These are the spies who are sent into the enemy’s camp or territory to gather information and are intended to return safely with that news. These are what we typically think of as spies. They need to be intelligent, observant, and able to endure hardship.

Managing Your Spies

Because spies are so important:

• You should maintain closer and more personal relationships with your spies than with anyone else in the army.
• Spies should be rewarded more generously than any other personnel.
• No other military business requires greater secrecy than spy operations. All communications should be extremely confidential.

You cannot use spies effectively unless you have a certain intuitive sagacity – meaning a wise and quick understanding, and good judgment. You need to be able to tell if the information they bring back is true or false, and whether a spy is being honest or trying to deceive you.

Spies cannot be managed properly unless you treat them with kindness (benevolence) and honesty (straightforwardness). Once you have recruited them, often with significant offers, you must be sincere in your dealings with them. This will encourage them to work hard for you.

Without a clever and skillful mind (subtle ingenuity), you cannot be certain that the reports your spies bring you are actually true. You must always be alert to the possibility that a spy might be working for the enemy or providing false information.

Be extremely clever and subtle in your methods! Use your spies for all kinds of military business and information gathering.

If a spy reveals a secret piece of information before the right time (before your plans are ready), that spy must be put to death. The person to whom the secret was told must also be put to death. This is to prevent the information from spreading further and to punish the leak.

No matter what your objective is – whether to defeat an army, attack a city, or even target a specific individual – you must always start by finding out the names of the key people around the enemy commander. This includes their personal staff, advisors, doorkeepers, and guards. Your spies must be assigned the task of learning these names, as these people can be sources of information or targets for influence.

You must actively look for enemy spies who have come to gather information about your forces.

• Once you find them, try to tempt them with bribes or other rewards.
• Lead them away from their mission, perhaps by offering them comfortable housing and good treatment. By doing this, they can become converted spies who will now be available to work for you.

It is often through the information provided by these converted spies (former enemy spies now working for you) that you are able to identify and recruit local spies (people from the enemy’s area) and inward spies (corrupt enemy officials). This is because the converted spy will know which local people are greedy or dissatisfied, and which officials might be open to bribery or persuasion.

Also, because of the information the converted spy provides (since they know the enemy well), you can give the right kind of false news to your doomed spies to carry to the enemy. The converted spy understands how the enemy can best be tricked.

Finally, the information from the converted spy also helps you use your surviving spies effectively for specific missions or at particular times.

The ultimate purpose of using all five kinds of spies is to gain knowledge about the enemy. This crucial knowledge often comes first and foremost from the converted spy. The converted spy not only provides information directly but also makes it possible to use the other types of spies more effectively. Therefore, it is absolutely essential that you treat your converted spies with extreme generosity.

In ancient times, major shifts in power were often due to key individuals who had served one dynasty but later helped another.

• For example, the rise of the Yin dynasty was greatly helped by I Chih, who had previously served the Hsia dynasty.
• Similarly, the rise of the Chou dynasty was helped by Lu Ya, who had earlier served the Yin dynasty. These examples show how valuable the knowledge and influence of such people can be, similar to the critical information provided by a high-level converted spy who changes sides.

Therefore, only the wisest rulers and the most skilled generals will use the very best and most intelligent people in their army for spying. By doing so, they can achieve great results. Spies are an extremely important part of warfare because an army’s ability to move, to know where to go, and what to do, depends heavily on the information they provide. An army without spies is like a person without eyes or ears.